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HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



HEALTH IN HOME 
AND TOWN 



BY 

BERTHA MILLARD BROWN, S.B, 

AUTHOR OF "GOOD HEALTH FOR GIRLS AND BOYS" 



REVISED 



D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 






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Copyright, 19 12 and 1922, 
By D. C. Heath & Co. 

2B 2 



MAR 25 1922 
©CU661027 



PRE FACE 

It is generally acknowledged that the environment in which a 
child lives has a marked influence upon his life. He has already 
learned in "Good Health for Girls and Boys" some of the essen- 
tial principles of personal hygiene. It is to be hoped that he is 
now practising them. This book will teach him to be intelligent 
not only about his personal home, but also about his greater home, 
the town or city. 

In teaching the first ten chapters, illustrative material may be 
found on every hand. The rooms of the schoolhouse will be 
especially valuable when they illustrate the home, because they 
are convenient and all of the pupils may observe them at the same 
time. The pupils may be encouraged to bring certain objects 
from home, and to start a collection of pictures and simple maga- 
zine articles that will illustrate the subject. Sometimes pupils 
whose parents are employed in building or decorating houses 
may give or loan material very valuable for study. Great tact, 
however, is necessary in talking about the home so that the 
children shall acquire a helpful attitude rather than a critical one. 
In studying the second half of the book, excursions and some per- 
sonal work by the pupils will be very valuable. An entire class 
may visit some point of interest, as the city water-supply or the 
lighting plant. The pupils may go individually or in small groups, 
on Saturdays, to the parks and playgrounds and make reports 
on their trips. 

The same methods of teaching should be used in hygiene as 
have already made geography and arithmetic live, interesting, and 
profitable studies. When a new topic is to be studied in hygiene 
an interest may be awakened by encouraging the pupils to gather 
all the information possible on the subject. Direct observation, 



iv PREFACE 

magazine articles, newspaper clippings, library books, and talks 
with their parents furnish the means. Their efforts may be 
directed by a set of questions put on the board and a few minutes 
set aside on a later day to hear their reports upon them. After 
sufficient facts have been gathered, reading the chapter on the 
subject in the book will have an added value. 

In grammar schools, the teaching of physiology and hygiene 
is generally far behind much of the best instruction in the other 
subjects of the curriculum. It is the hope that this book with the 
others of the series may prove a valuable help alike to teacher and 
pupil. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 
I. 



/ 



II. 
III. 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

^cvm. 

XIX. 

^C xx. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 






PAGE 

The Healthful Home i 

The Dwelling House 7 

The Rooms or the House 21 

How to Ventilate the House 31 

How to Warm the House 42 

How to Light the House 55 

How to Use Running Water in the House . . 70 

How to Finish and Decorate the House ... 82 

How to Furnish the House ....... 94 

How to Care for the House . . . . . . . 107 

Some Enemies of the Home ' . 118 

The Healthful City 127 

The Parks and Playgrounds . 145 

The City Food Supply ... „ ..... 159 

The City Water and Ice ........ 177 

The City Refuse 196 

The City Streets 211 

The Diseases Dangerous to the Public Health . 229 

The Great White Plague — Tuberculosis . . . . 245 

The Prevention of Disease . 261 

The Safe City . . 275 

A National Evil 293 

The Health Campaign 300 

Books for the Teacher 313 

Index 318 



THE HOUSE 

The cornerstone in Truth is laid, 

The guardian walls of Honor made, 

The roof of Faith is built above, 

The fire upon the hearth is Love : 

Though rains descend and loud winds call, 

This happy house shall never fall. 

Henry Van Dyke 

From " Music and Other Poems " 
Copyright, 1904, by Charles Scribner's Sons 
Used by permission 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

I. THE HEALTHFUL HOME 

North, south, east, or west, 
A man's own home is ever the best. 
House Motto. 

Good Health. — Good health is one of the chief 
factors of a successful life. Without health, we are 
disappointed and handicapped at every step. Good 
health is the foundation of a forceful character. It 
encourages the growth of all those attractive qualities 
which we admire in others, such as cheerfulness, courage, 
and perseverance. Mrs. Alice Freeman Palmer has 
said, " Cultivate cheerfulness as a virtue and an accom- 
plishment. It is marvelously contagious. A sunny 
disposition is worth more than any talent." 

The Efficient Worker. — To be of value in the world, 
we must be efficient. Promptness, quickness, knowl- 
edge, and training can produce the best results only 
when we are well and strong. We should cherish our 
health as a most valued possession. 

Right Living. — Good health is dependent upon a great 
many conditions. It is very important to form and to 
cultivate right habits of living. Healthfulness depends 
upon proper exercise, deep breathing, fresh air, right eat- 
ing, cleanliness, and suitable clothing. Many of these 
matters we can regulate, individually, for ourselves. 



2 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

The Healthful Home. — A sanitary home is one of 
the greatest aids in keeping well. To be sanitary, a 
home must be clean. All the drains should be tight 
and in good working order. The garbage, ashes, and 
rubbish should be removed from the house regularly 
and promptly. Running water is a great aid in keep- 
ing a house clean, but there are many healthful homes 
situated in the country without this convenience. 

Other Helps. — A sunny, dry location is desirable 
for the home. Plenty of room for the various activities 
of the members of the family, as cooking, eating, rest- 
ing, and playing is also necessary. Besides the three or 
four rooms for general family life, a sleeping-room is 
needed for every member or every two members of the 
family. It is difficult to keep healthful conditions when 
more than two persons use the same sleeping-room. 

Convenient Homes. — In cities and towns many 
modern conveniences are now considered necessary. 
The house must be lighted by gas or electricity. The 
gas-range must take the place of, or supplement, the 
kitchen-range. Running hot and cold water are avail- 
able ail over the house. The speaking tubes and 
electric bells save many steps for the housekeeper. 
Laundry-tubs and basins as well as a complete drainage 
system lighten much of the work. The house is kept 
comfortably warm both day and night, and is furnished 
with a continuous and abundant supply of fresh air. 
The telephone makes it possible to call the butcher, the 
grocer, the laundry-man, or any other tradesman with- 
out leaving the house. 



THE HEALTHFUL HOME 3 

Dangers of the Modern Home. — The up-to-date 
dwelling equipped with gas, water, drains, and heat 
must be kept in repair. Otherwise, these very conve- 
niences may serve only as a menace to health. Escaping 




A Healthful Home where Sunshine and Fresh Air are Abundant 

gas, dripping water, open drains, coal gas, and foul air 
have injured the health of many unsuspecting persons. 
Because a leak is unnoticed and unrepaired is no proof 
that it will do no harm. 

The Beautiful Home. — We have come to recognize 
that attractive and beautiful homes make for health. 
The green lawn, the flowering shrubs, and the beautiful 
garden form the most natural setting for a home. Trees 
planted along the street or at some distance from the 



4 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

house lessen the intense heat of summer. From the 
first, a generous plan should be made for the finishing, 
decorating, and furnishing of the home. When addi- 
tions are needed, from time to time, they should be in 
harmony with this plan. All the members of the family 
should take a pride in making the home attractive and 
beautiful as well as hygienic. 

Importance of the Home. — The home is the essen- 
tial feature of all civilized life. It has the greatest in- 
fluence upon the lives of people. Neither the school 
nor the church, great as their influence is, can compare 
with the results of the home life. They can only modify 
or change the character already formed at home. 

Responsibility in the Home. — The life of the family 
as a whole is of the greatest importance to the growth 
and happiness of every member. Each one should 
feel a responsibility in helping to make the family life 
wholesome and happy. Girls and boys should be cheer- 
ful and helpful. They should take pride in helping to 
care for the home, or in doing errands for one another. 
They should keep their own things in order, and should 
put away games and books after using them. 

The Weil-Regulated Home. — Good family habits 
are just as necessary as good personal habits. A regular 
time for rising, for eating, for working, for recreation, 
and for retiring, all help in making the family life well- 
ordered, regular, and hygienic. Promptness is a great 
help in the home. Each day brings its own work and each 
season its own duties. The family life, games, sports, and 
pleasures are an education to the different individuals. 



THE HEALTHFUL HOME 5 

The Use of the Home. — - For many centuries homes 
have sheltered and protected parents and their children. 
In civilized lands they have done more than this. The 
home is the place for growth and development. The 
change in life to better and better things should be 
reflected in the home. As old thoughts are outgrown 




The Well-Kept House of a Laboring Man 

for new, so the old home should be replenished to reflect 
the new growth. But the home is more than a shelter. 
It is the place of peace and rest. It is the place where 
we renew, daily, our strength and inspiration. 

Living Together. — Courtesy and forbearance make 
living together in the family a source of happiness. The 
happy home " is cheer, is peace, is trust, is delight; 
it is all these for, and all these in, each other. The 
little festivals of love are kept, but, after all, the best 
days are the e very-days." Longfellow has expressed a 
similar thought, " Home-keeping hearts are happiest." 



6 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Municipal Housekeeping. — As people live together 
in families, so families live together in villages, towns, 
and cities. Many problems of living must be solved 
by the community as a whole wherever a large number 
of people live together. A safe water-supply and 
sewage system are the chief essentials. Sufficient police 
and fire protection are also necessary. Dignified and 
well-cared-for public buildings, including schoolhouses, 
libraries, court-houses, and theatres are imperative. 
City streets and parks must be laid out, lighted, and 
maintained in good order. 

Health Laws. — Health regulations in regard to food, 
air, water, wastes, and many other matters protect the 
people. Pure food, air, and water must be regulated 
or controlled by city, state, or national authority to 
make them possible for every one. A good government 
makes it easier to obtain the passing and the enforce- 
ment of health laws and regulations. 

Summary. — i. Good health is of first importance. 

2. We are able to regulate for ourselves many questions of personal 
hygiene. 

3. The family, together, must solve many problems of right living. 

4. A hygienic, well-regulated home is a great help in keeping well. 

5. Conveniences in the home have become necessary so that we may 
have time for recreation and growth. 

6. The most helpful home will be beautiful as well as wholesome. 

Questions. — 1. What are some of the qualifications of an efficient 
worker? 

2. What are the essentials of a hygienic home? 

3. What are some of the conveniences found in modern dwellings? 

4. Are there any dangers in these conveniences? What are they? 

5. What helps to make the home beautiful? 



II. THE DWELLING HOUSE 

This house I've built for me and mine; 
May it be of peace a shrine; 
And may no enmity or sin 
Ever find its way therein. 

Old English Motto. 

Choosing a Home. — Boys and girls usually have 
little choice in the location of their homes. Often, in 
the country, they live where one of their parents was 
born and perhaps their grandparents before them. 
Many of the old homesteads have been handed down 
in the same family from generation to generation. In 
towns and cities, homes are less permanent. Some 
families, it is true, own their own houses, and are per- 
manently located. More families hire houses or apart- 
ments, and never become attached to them. If they 
see another house with more modern improvements, 
or for lower rent, they are ready to move at short notice. 
In selecting a home, there are many problems to be 
considered. 

Living in the City. — Many persons enjoy living in a 
large city. Usually they can find homes near the pub- 
lic schools, and not far from the churches of their choice. 
Lectures, concerts, and theatres are near at hand. To 
some, the brilliantly lighted stores and the crowds of 
people offer a continuous source of amusement. Here 
are found many modern conveniences, as gas, water, 
drainage, and electricity. All these lighten work and 



8 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

save time, so that more pleasure and enjoyment are 
possible. But the city has also its disadvantages. It 
is noisy, and it is dusty. It lacks the pure air and the 
bright sunshine of the open country. Thousands of 
little children have no other place to play out-of-doors 
than the sidewalk and the dirty streets. In summer, 
how hot and close it is! 

Living in the Country. — The great advantage of 
living in the country is the abundance of fresh air and 
sunshine. How much children enjoy the birds, the hens, 
the dog, the puppies, the cat, the cow, and the horse. 
There is not room in the city for pets. Then, too, all 
the good things to eat grow on the farm. We enjoy 
apples and peaches and plums in the city, but think 
of watching them grow and helping to gather them! 
There are other pleasures too. Riding, swimming, 
swinging, visiting, and picnicking are dear to the heart of 
every boy and girl. 

These are things I prize 
And hold of dearest worth: 
Light of the sapphire skies, 
Peace of the silent hills, 
Shelter of forests, comfort of the grass, 
Music of birds, murmur of little rills, 
Shadow of clouds that swiftly pass, 
And, after showers, 
The smell of flowers 
And of the good brown earth, — 
And, best of all, along the way, 
Friendship and mirth. 1 

Henry Van Dyke. 
1 From "Music and Other Poems," copyright, 1904, by Charles Scribner's 
Sons. Used by permission. 



THE DWELLING HOUSE 9 

Are there disadvantages in living in the country? 
Sometimes it seems a long distance to the store, the 
school, the church, or the post-office, but now the rural 
free delivery of mails and the telephone have helped 
to bring friends nearer together. 




Suburban Homes 

Living in the Suburbs. — Many prefer to live in the 
suburbs of a city. Here they obtain the advantages of 
both city and country life. Schools, churches, and stores 
are convenient, and it is easy to find pleasure in the 
city. The chief objection is the loss of time in going 
back and forth to the city. There is plenty of air in 
the open spaces, and small gardens are possible. 

A Good Neighborhood. — Although we may not know 
all of our neighbors, it is well to live in a good neighbor- 
hood. It is pleasant to live with quiet, law-abiding 
families. The absence of active business, of the dust 



to HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

and the noise of manufacturing plants, of saloons, and 
of low marshy ground is always desirable. Then we 
must each do our part to keep our yards, steps, and 
sidewalks neat and clean. This is as important as a 
clean house. 

Selecting the Location. — After the family has de- 
cided upon a desirable locality, and decided whether to 
buy, build, or rent, it is necessary to look for the house. 
So let us, together, go house-hunting. 

Variety of Dwellings. — As we walk up and down the 
streets, what a great variety of houses we find. There 
are dwellings to meet every need, from apartments of 
two, three, or four rooms to stately residences of fifty 
rooms. In style of building, they range from the 
simple box-like house to the imposing colonial dwelling. 
So the rents vary, too, from $150 a year to $15,000. 
Let us examine some of these houses. 

The Beautiful Residence. — Wealthy men have built 
very beautiful residences in America. In New York, 
Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Boston, Cleveland, 
and other large cities, their town houses are palatial. 
Within, nothing is too good for decorating and furnish- 
ing. Rooms are finished in marble and in mahogany, 
and the walls are hung with wonderful tapestries. Some- 
times, an entire room is finished in wood that once 
decorated a palace of the old country. Wonderful fire- 
places reach to the ceilings, and are copies of those in 
some ancient palace of Europe. Furniture, draperies, 
and carpets are collected from the four quarters of the 
earth, and no expense is spared. 



THE DWELLING HOUSE 



ii 



A Country House. — Some of the fine estates that 
have been created in this country are similar to the 
old English places that have descended for generations 
from father to son. A large, rambling house is often 
set upon a commanding hill. From the wide verandas, 




A Pleasant Cottage Home 

line views may be obtained of the rolling lawn, the 
stately trees, the beautiful garden, or the distant river 
or hills. 

The Single House. — Perhaps the most comfortable 
dwelling for a family of moderate means is the single 
one-family house. In the city, it may be one of a block 
of houses; a little square in front and another at the 
rear is the most that it can claim for a yard. In the 
suburbs, the single houses are found on the pleasantest 
streets, often shaded with trees. A good lawn in front 
and possibly a little garden at the rear may add to the 



12 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

attractiveness of the place. In towns and villages, most 
of the houses are surrounded by a small piece of land 
developed as a lawn, a flower, or a vegetable garden. 
Here there is plenty of room for tennis, croquet, and 
other out-of-door games. 

Cottages. — The small single house is often called a 
cottage. Some of them cost only a few hundred dollars 
and are very simple. In the less expensive suburbs of 
any large city are found cottages which are attractive 
homes. In connection with a cottage, we always think 
of a flower garden or a tiny vegetable garden. The 
cottage homes of England are more picturesque than 
many of our own country. 

Apartment Houses. — In the large cities and in their 
adjoining suburbs, many of the more moderate rents 
are found in apartment houses, built for two, three, or 
more families. Some of these buildings offer janitor 
service and are up-to-date in every respect. Many of 
the two-family houses are attractive, have separate 
entrances, and are very desirable. Some of them can 
hardly be distinguished on the exterior from single 
houses. The grounds are well laid out and are usually 
well kept. The main objection to apartment houses is 
the inability to obtain quiet and privacy at all times. 
The noise from callers, children, or pianos may be very 
disturbing. Most of the large houses have no yards, 
and provide no place for children to play. 

The Apartment Hotel. — We may call a very large 
apartment house with suites for twenty-five or more 
families an apartment hotel. In the more expensive 



THE DWELLING HOUSE 13 

buildings there are elevators, offices, public parlors, and 
dining-rooms similar to those of a regular hotel. In the 
less expensive houses each family has its own kitchen 
and housekeeping arrangements. These hotels are often 
among the best furnished in the city, and are utilized by 
wealthy people who enjoy some of the privacy of home 
life without all of the care of keeping house. 

Tenements in Large Cities. — We can scarcely im- 
agine, unless we have visited the poorer districts of a 
large city, how many tenements there are, or what 
swarms of people inhabit them. The tenement house 
census of 1900 states that in greater New York there are 
eighty-two thousand tenements and that two thirds 
of the people of New York City live in them. In 
other words, as many people live in tenements in New 
York City as live in the entire state of Michigan. In 
New York, Boston, and Cincinnati are found the most 
wretched crowded conditions, and the housing of the 
poorer people in these cities has become a serious 
problem. In other large cities the houses for work- 
ingmen are scattered over more space, so that enough 
air and sunshine, at least, can be obtained. 

A Tenement House. — Some of us have visited poor 
tenement houses. They are very unattractive. We 
find them stretching block after block. While they 
may be three, four, or even twelve stories high, most 
of them are five or six stories. The steps and doorway 
may be dirty and uncared for. The hallway is often 
narrow, is usually dark and close, and there is little 
ventilation. There are crowds of people, and appar- 



i 4 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

ently no room for the multitude of children. Clothes 
are seen out drying at all times, and the people are busy 
at housework or some other employment, such as mak- 
ing cigars or garments. We do not need to stay very 
long to see how the people live. 

Life in a Tenement House. — " Being born and bred 
on the East Side of New York, 1 I am somewhat in a 
position to judge the various discomforts that exist in 
the modern tenements. The greatest evil is the lack 
of light and air. The air-shaft is so narrow that the 
kitchen windows in two houses adjoin each other. In 
most houses the air-shafts are the only means of light 
and air for at least two out of every three rooms, and 
the only means of lighting the staircases. 

"The first thing that awakens one in the morning 
is the loud voices of the various tenants, intermingled 
with the odors that arise from the kitchen windows. 
It is indeed wonderful that you can distinguish any 
one voice among them all. If we are to give the reason 
for the people's loud voices, let us first consider how 
difficult it is for one to make himself understood in this 
medley and confusion; in this congested House of Babel 
it becomes habitual for us to raise our voices. 

"After the children are sent to school, the various 
mothers commence their house-cleaning. Then comes 
the question, What is to be done with the garbage of 
the day? Most women solve it by throwing it into the 
street or the air-shaft. It is much easier than climbing 

1 The following account is written by a young woman of twenty, 
a tenement house dweller in New York. 



THE DWELLING HOUSE 



iS 



the dark stairs and running the risk of breaking one's 
legs. In some cases it is almost a necessity to throw 
it out, the premium on space is so high in their tiny 
kitchens, which hold wash-tubs, water-sink, and chairs, 
and just room enough to turn about. In this room the 




A Tenement House of the Better Sort 

cooking, the washing of clothes, and the daily ablutions 
of the various members of the family take place. 

"The cooking is generally abbreviated to one meal a 
day, the other meals consisting of tea or coffee, with 
bread and butter. On washing and ironing days the 



16 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

children are sent to school with a cent to buy candy, 
instead of lunch. 

" After the principal meal of the day is over, the 
kitchen changes its appearance into a study room; the 
older children sit at the table doing their arithmetic, 
while the younger ones sit on the floor or any available 
space, with a large book on their laps for a desk. 

"The public schools are beginning to realize the East 
Side needs by opening their buildings and playgrounds 
for quiet study and play, which are a dire necessity; 
where every inch of space is utilized in their houses, it 
is a relief to get into a large, airy room. 

"The law forbids putting pots or pans outside of 
windows on fire-escapes, but the rooms are not supplied 
with enough closets or refrigerators, hence this is the 
only means of getting rid of them." 

Overcrowding in New York. — One of the chief evils 
of tenement houses is the overcrowding of many persons 
in a small space. Sometimes one family will take 
several boarders, or sublet one or more rooms to another 
family. A walk through one of the thickly populated 
streets of a large city will show what overcrowding 
means. Men, women, and children are everywhere, on 
the streets as well as in the houses. It is even worse at 
night, when the men and the children, some of whom are 
away during the day, have returned to eat and sleep. 
New York City has the worst housing conditions, for 
the tenth ward is "the most crowded spot in the world." 
According to the United States Census, the average 
number of persons to each house, in the old city, is 



THE DWELLING HOUSE 17 

twenty. It had increased from sixteen persons during 
the ten years previous. 

Dangers from Overcrowding. — The chief evil from 
overcrowding is the lack of light and air. The buildings 
are so tall, and are so close together, that light and air 
are shut out. In most of the buildings, only the rooms 
directly in front, or at the back, receive air from the 
outside. Many rooms in the middle of the house are 
dark, and receive air only from another room or from 
an air-shaft or court. The windows opening on the 
air-shafts are often closed and nailed up, because the 
shaft is so noisy, and contains such foul air. In fact, 
the dark bedroom is one of the chief evils of tenement 
houses. One typical block of houses in New York 
covered nearly two acres of land, and housed 2781 
persons. Of the 1588 rooms, 441 rooms, or nearly one 
third of the entire number, were dark, with no ventila- 
tion to the outside except through other rooms. Six 
hundred and thirty-five rooms opened upon " twilight " 
air-shafts. 

Neglect of Cleanliness. — The presence of dirt and 
filth, and the absence of ordinary cleanliness is another 
danger to health. Some of the schools, with their 
shower-baths, are a help to the children. The public 
baths also are available, and in summer thousands visit 
them daily. 

Danger from Disease. — There is always found a 
large amount of sickness in tenements. This is due 
chiefly to lack of pure air, sunshine, and nutritious food, 
and to the presence of dirt. Contagious diseases, like 



18 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

measles, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and tuberculosis or 
consumption, are likely to spread rapidly. 

Danger from Fire. — Some of the worst fires have 
been in tenement districts. The fire-escapes are fre- 
quently used as storehouses for mattresses, beds, and 
chairs, in spite of fines repeatedly imposed for this 
offence. The fire often rushes up through the house 
by the staircase or air-shaft, cutting off all means of 
exit except by the fire-escapes, so it is very important 
to have the ladder fire-escapes, and to keep them clear 
at all times. 

Need to know about Tenements. — The people who 
live in the poorer tenements may become unconsciously 
a real source of danger to the rest of the city in case a 
fire or an epidemic of sickness should break out among 
them. Any help to improve their surroundings must 
come from others. So it is important that we should 
know about them, and be ready to do what we can to 
help them. 

Reforms. — There are public-spirited persons who 
are trying to improve the tenements, and in the last 
few years great gains have been made. This work has 
extended in four chief directions. First, the worst 
tenement houses in New York and Boston have been 
torn down. In Boston, 144 houses were destroyed 
previous to 1900. In New York, two beautiful parks, 
Mulberry Bend and Seward Parks, now give air and 
sunlight to a multitude of people where formerly the 
worst tenement districts stood. Second, many houses 
have been cleaned and repaired. The chief improve- 



THE DWELLING HOUSE 19 

ment has been to let light and air into the 350,000 dark 
interior rooms of New York by cutting large windows 
through the partitions into adjoining rooms. 

Other Reforms. — In the third place, the new tene- 
ment houses must be sanitary, and must be built accord- 
ing to the laws which have recently been passed. The 
houses must have proper light, air, and washing facili- 
ties. Fourth, tenement houses are now inspected to 




A Crowded City District 

see that cellars and halls are clean, that the plumbing 
is in good order, and that the houses and yards are 
kept in a sanitary condition. The improvements in the 
future will extend along these same lines. 

The Children. — The saddest part is the story of the 
children. Many are put to work almost as soon as 
they are able to earn a cent. It is constant, weary 
work with little fun or play. Many children prefer to 
live on the streets to the poor places that they call 



20 HEALTH IX HOME AXD TOWN 

home. Some of the children are even homeless, and 
must earn their own living. 

Help for the Children. — In the large cities, there 
are many societies and charities whose aim is to help 
these unfortunate children. In New York there are 
over two hundred and fifty charities to assist needy 
boys and girls. Among these are the industrial schools, 
boys' clubs, reading rooms, children's lodging houses, 
children's homes, children's hospitals, and dispensaries. 

Summary. — i. Those who live in the suburbs enjoy fresh air and 
sunshine as well as the advantages of a city. 

2. In choosing a home, healthful surroundings should be considered. 

5. The appearance of the outside of a house is just as important as 
the inside. 

4. The homes of noted people should be preserved as national 
treasures. 

5. Two thirds of the people of Xew York City live in tenements. 

6. The dangers of overcrowding are the lack of air, light, cleanliness, 
and the presence of disease and fire. 

7. It is better to avoid building too closely than it is to improve 
conditions afterwards. 

Questions. — 1. What can we do to make our neighborhood more 
attractive? 

2. Have you seen any yards or window-boxes planted and cared for 
by boys and girls? 

3. Are there any beautiful residences in your vicinity? What helps 
to make them beautiful? 

4. Have you seen a model tenement house with plenty of light and 
air? 

5. What are good arrangements for securing pure drinking water 
and keeping food fresh at summer camps and cottages? 



III. THE ROOMS OF THE HOUSE 

As the body is to the mind, 
So is the house to the body. 

Old English Motto. 

Houses in the Olden Times. — Houses built one 
hundred or even two hundred and fifty years ago are 
still standing. They contained few conveniences. There 




- — © 



A Colonial Kitchen 

were no water-works except the pump, and no 
plumbing to worry about. There were no gas-pipes to 
leak, as candles supplied the light. Coal-bills and fur- 
naces gave no trouble as all the fuel was cut on the 
family wood-lot, and burned in the great open fireplace. 



22 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

The Twentieth Century House. — The modern house 
not' only provides shelter, but contains many conve- 
niences for lighting, heating, cooking, .ventilating, and 
bathing. It should be dust-proof and sound-proof, fire- 
proof and vermin-proof. Especially should it be health- 
ful and beautiful. 

The Plan of the House. — In order to have a conve- 
nient house it is necessary to follow a satisfactory plan. 
In a single, detached house, the hall, living-room, 
dining-room, kitchen, and closets are usually on the first 
floor. On the second floor are located the bedrooms 
and bath-room. In the basement *are the cellar and 
vegetable-closet. In apartment houses, one or more 
apartments are located on each floor. Then the living- 
rooms or best rooms are on the front, the bedrooms 
at the side, and the kitchen at the back near the dry- 
ing balcony. It is 1 desirable to have the house face the 
east or south, for then the sun will brighten the living- 
rooms while the kitchen will be cool during the busiest 
part of the day. 

The Piazza. — A piazza, in summer, is a great con- 
venience. It may often be made into an out-of-door 
living-room. Even where it is on the sunny side of the 
house, screens, shades, vines, and plants can do much 
to shut out the heat, and make a charming summer 
retreat. A few rugs, comfortable chairs, and a table for 
books add to the enjoyment of hospitality. 

The Hall. — The hall is the inner gateway of the 
house. It should be light, cheerful, dignified, and 
hospitable. Glass in the front door and in the door- 



THE ROOMS OF THE HOUSE 



23 



way usually admits plenty of light. Sometimes the 
stairs are built at the back, and the front part is large 
enough to receive callers and to take the place of a 
reception-room. Sometimes a fireplace adds cheer to 
the large hall. Little can be said in favor of the long, 
narrow, and dark halls of apartment houses. Keeping 



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A Cheerful Living-Room 

the doors that lead into them open improves them 
somewhat. The halls of a house should always be 
light and well ventilated, for the sake of the rest of 
the house. 

The Living-Room. — If we are more than a chance 
caller, we shall probably be invited into the living-room 
to enjoy our call. This is usually the best room in the 
house. It is sunny and cheerful in the daytime and 
warm and well lighted in the evening. Here the family 
gather in the evenings. The father has his easy-chair, 



24 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

paper, or book, and the mother her sewing. Here the 
children are gathered around the table for study. Dur- 
ing part of the evening there will be games and music. 
Here are kept the games, the papers, the magazines, 
and the books of every-day use. There should be 
enough easy chairs of different shapes and sizes to suit 
the different members of the family. Here the social 
life of the family prevails rather than the work that 
should be performed before the family gather around 
the evening lamp. A living-room is sometimes called 
a sitting-room. 

The Parlor. — There was usually one room of the house 
kept closed, and dark, and, perhaps, cold too. Here were 
the best chairs and the family portraits. This room was 
only used for marriages and other state occasions. For- 
tunately that kind of a parlor has gone out of favor, 
and the modern best-room or living-room has taken its 
place. It is always desirable, however, to have one 
room in the house that is in order to receive callers, 
whether that room is called a reception-room, a hall, a 
parlor, a sitting-room, or a living-room. In a very 
large and stately residence, the room set apart for 
receiving guests is handsomely furnished and is called 
the drawing-room. 

The Library or Music-Room. — If there are many 
books in a house, it may be desirable to furnish the 
living-room, or some part of it, as a library. We must 
remember that good light and privacy are always neces- 
sary for the enjoyment of a good book. If the family is 
musical, the piano and music may be the key-note forde- 



THE ROOMS OF THE HOUSE 25 

veloping the living-room. The interests of the different 
members of the family should always be considered. 

The Dining-Room. — Having been duly invited to 
luncheon on this day, we remove our wraps and remain. 
How pleasant the dining-room is! It is attractive, 




An Attractive Dining-Room 

harmonious, and airy without having draughts. It is 
large enough to seat a small company comfortably. A 
dining-room should be dainty, and still be serviceable. 
If it opens directly into the kitchen, care must be taken 
to keep odors out of the room. A pantry where china 
may be kept sometimes connects the two rooms. 

The Kitchen. — In many respects the kitchen is the 
most important room in the house. Much is accom- 
plished here that affects the health of the entire house- 



26 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

hold. Three meals are prepared and cleared away each 
day, and many other duties are performed necessary 
to the family life. The kitchen need not be large, but 
there should be room enough for the sink, the stoves, 
and the household implements. An ice-chest or re- 





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A Convenient Kitchen 

frigerator should stand nearby in a pantry, vestibule, or 
hall. It should also be near an outside entrance for 
convenience in placing the ice. The prime requisites 
of a kitchen are cleanliness, neatness, and order. 

The Kitchenette. — The kitchenette is found in small 
apartments. In most cases it is no larger than our 
grandmother's pantry. A kitchenette usually contains 
a small gas-stove, a small sink, and a number of 
shelves to hold the food. Here cleanliness and order 
are still more imperative than in a large room. 



THE ROOMS OF THE HOUSE 



27 



The Bedroom. — If we have been invited to stay over 
night with our friends, we shall enjoy the bedrooms. 
These are usually located, in a single house, on the 
second floor, for there they are airy, light, and farther 
away from the damp ground during the winter. Plenty 




A Colonial Bedroom 

of fresh air is of the first importance in a bedroom. It 
should also have sunlight during some part of the day. 
The bedroom should contain only the necessary furnish- 
ings, and should be kept free from knickknacks, thick 
draperies, and a large number of small pictures, cards, 
and ornaments. It should be easily cleaned, and aired 
thoroughly two or three hours each day. 

The Bathroom. — Usually on the same floor with the 
bedrooms is the bathroom. This may be a small room, 



28 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

but certainly should have a window opening to the 
outside. It will be easy then to keep it fresh and clean. 
Except in the coldest weather, the window should be 
open a few inches all of the time to insure good ven- 
tilation. The bathroom fittings are permanent, but they 
should be so placed that it is posssible to reach and clean 
all parts of the room and floor. The tub is the most 
important feature. It may be of enameled iron or porce- 
lain. An old zinc tub may be improved by applying 
several coats of white enamel paint. There should be 
individual racks and shelf spaces for each member of the 
family to keep his toothbrush and soap, unless he carries 
these to and from his own room. These places should 
be properly labeled. It is essential that the bathroom 
be comfortably heated in the coldest weather, and that 
there is enough hot water for the use of all the family. 

The Play-Room. — This is the one room in the house 
that belongs entirely to the children. If they are small, 
it may also serve as a nursery. When the children 
are older, the nursery becomes a workshop, a dark 
room, or a gymnasium. It is fitted with suitable fur- 
niture that will wear, and contains the toys, the books, 
the work-benches, and other precious possessions. It is 
just the place for rainy days and holidays. 

Closets. — Of what use is a house without closets? 
Certainly they are needed in nearly every room. A 
closet off the front hall is the most convenient place 
for the various members of the family to leave their 
wraps. The china-closet in the dining-room is as in- 
dispensable as the kitchen-closet. A large well-lighted 



THE ROOMS OF THE HOUSE 29 

closet in each chamber is indeed a luxury. Its rows 
of hooks, its chest of drawers, and its shelves above 
the hooks are a great help in keeping clothing neat 
and well-aired. If there is no window in the closet, 
the door should be left open when the room is being 
aired. Near the chambers a broom closet is a great 
convenience, where brooms, carpet-sweeper, and mops 
may be put away in an orderly manner. The linen- 
closet off the upper hall for the extra bedding is also 
a comfort. 

The Cellar. — In the city the cellar usually extends 
under the entire house, while in the country the cellars 
under some of the large, old, rambling houses are very 
small. Formerly they were used almost wholly for 
keeping and storing food. Now they are used almost 
entirely for the heating apparatus and for storing fuel. 
Sometimes a small part is partitioned off as a cold 
closet for keeping a few vegetables and preserves. A 
cellar should be dry and well-ventilated. To keep out 
the moisture, the floor should be of concrete for six or 
eight inches covered with a layer of cement. The walls 
should be whitened. The heating apparatus, whether 
furnace, heater, or boiler, is the chief object in the 
cellar. Nearby in bins, partitioned off from the rest 
of the cellar, are the winter's coal and wood. The ashes 
may be kept in metal barrels in the cellar and should be 
removed as often as once a week. If more than one 
family lives in a house, the cellar should be partitioned 
off into as many rooms as there are furnaces or heaters. 
Ventilating the cellar is often neglected. Stout iron 



3 o HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

netting and wire screens over the windows will keep out 
flies and cats. One window should be kept partly open 
throughout the year except during the coldest weather. 
If the windows are hung from the top, they may be easily 
raised or lowered by a cord running over a pulley. 

The Store -Room. — In one part of the cellar, as far 
as possible from the furnace and near a window, a small 
room or closet may be built for vegetables. Here the 
preserves, the apples, the potatoes, and other vegetables 
can be safely stored. By regulating the window, the 
closet may be kept cold and at a proper temperature. 

The Laundry. — The cellar is often a most convenient 
site for a good laundry. It should be supplied with 
stationary tubs and be * well-lighted and heated. This 
is a luxury found in single houses, and helps to make 
the kitchen ideal by keeping the "wash-day " activities 
downstairs. 

Summary. — i. A suitable and convenient plan is a great help 
towards the success of a house. 

2. People are only beginning to learn how to enjoy their piazzas by 
making them into summer living-rooms. 

3. The living-room is the heart of the home. 

4. The dining-room stands for service and good cheer. 

5. Bedrooms need all the fresh air possible. 

Questions. — 1. What are the conveniences desirable in a twentieth 
century house ? 

2. What furnishings are really necessary in the living-room? 

3. How can girls and boys help to keep it neat and orderly? 

4. Where are the best places for plants in a house ? Why? 

5. What care do house plants need in cold weather? 

6. What are the advantages of a balcony, a piazza, a veranda, and 
a pergola? 



IV. HOW TO VENTILATE THE HOUSE 

Sunny be the day, 
Sunny thy spirit. 

Old English Motto. 

Sunshine and Health. — We often fail to realize how 
much we depend upon sunshine for health and good 
cheer. Let it rain for two or three days, and we long 
to see the sun again. Still we must learn not to allow 
the weather to affect our cheerfulness. 

" Whatever the weather may be," says he, 

"Whatever the weather may be, 
It's the song ye sing, and the smiles ye wear 
That's a-making the sun shine everywhere." 

James Whitcomb Riley. 

House Diseases. — In early days when people lived 
out-of-doors most of the time, there were fewer 
diseases than today. Staying in-doors all of the time 
in cold weather is without doubt very comfortable, but 
going back and forth to school and playing out-of-doors 
in the fresh air is much better for us. Breathing the 
same air over and over again until it is charged with poi- 
sons from our bodies is especially harmful. We are not 
able to live and keep well in close impure air, and as a re- 
sult, may be attacked by colds, consumption, pneumonia, 
bronchitis, pleurisy, or catarrh. These are sometimes 
called house diseases, because the persons who stay in the 
house most of the time are very liable to have them. 

31 



32 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



Deep Breathing. — In order to obtain plenty of fresh 
air and to free our lungs of poisonous gases, we should 
form the habit of taking deep breaths. Deep breathing 
sends the pure blood to the brain, and helps us to learn 
our lessons quickly and well. Deep breathing aids in 
the digestion of our food, and prevents dyspepsia. 





With deep breathing With shallow breathing 

Diagrammatic Section op the Body 

Showing the lungs fully expanded with a deep breath and partly 

expanded by a shallow breath 

Food for our bodies is like coal for the stove. Just as 
coal must have air to make it burn, we must have air 
to change our food so that it will nourish the body. 
Deep breathing purifies the blood. The chief use of 
the blood is to carry nutrition to all parts of the body 
and to take away the impurities. When the blood 
is rich in oxygen it carries more nutrition to the various 



HOW TO VENTILATE THE HOUSE 33 

parts of the body. Consequently we feel much better 
and stronger, and are less likely to be ill. Our lungs 
are nature's blood-purifiers. Deep breathing hastens 
the circulation of the blood, so that more blood is carried 
all through the body to repair waste and make us 
stronger. 

Shallow Breathing. — If deep breathing is beneficial 
to us, then shallow breathing must be injurious. The 
poisonous gases remain in the blood, and are slowly but 
continuously carried to all parts of the body. Some- 
times we look a long time for the causes of headaches, 
sore throats, or worse troubles, before we think of taking 
plenty of fresh air. Going out-of-doors and breathing 
deeply is a preventive as well as a cure for many ail- 
ments. A lack of good circulation of blood to the brain 
is often responsible for feeling dull and having the 
" blues." Try taking a good brisk walk the next time 
that you feel cross or out-of-sorts. 

Ventilating the House. — Since we are in the house 
so much of the time, ventilating our lungs means ven- 
tilating our homes, schools, and public buildings. It 
is easy to calculate how much fresh air each person 
must have. One cubic foot of air is necessary each 
second, for each person in a room. This means that 
fresh air must be constantly coming into a room, 
and impure air as constantly going out. To avoid 
breathing the same air over and over again, the 
air in a living-room should be entirely changed four 
times every hour. The temperature of a room is also 
important. In the living-room sixty-eight or seventy 



34 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

degrees, and in the bedroom sixty-six degrees or less, 
is warm enough during the daytime. 

Principles of Ventilation. — The theory of ventila- 
tion is very simple, but to ventilate a house or building 
successfully is extremely difficult, and rarely accom- 
plished to everybody's satisfaction. There are three 
requirements: first, to provide plenty of pure air; second, 
to avoid draughts, either hot or cold; and third, to pro- 
vide means of escape for the foul air. It must also be 
remembered that when air is breathed out it is moist 
and warm and therefore expands, becomes lighter, and 
rises. The cold air rushes in to take the place of 
the ascending air. As the impure warm air cools, it 
becomes heavier and sinks to the floor. 

Inlets and Outlets. — In order to have a regular plan 
for ventilation, each room must have a place arranged 
for the pure air to enter, called an inlet. The opening 
may be a window, a door, or a register. Each room 
must also have a means of escape for the foul air, called 
an outlet. The outlet may be a register, a stairway, or 
a fireplace. The size and the location of the inlets and 
outlets are very important, and may make all the differ- 
ence between good and poor ventilation. Their arrange- 
ment in houses is somewhat different from that in large 
buildings like schoolhouses, theaters, and churches. 

Arrangements of Openings. — The inlets and outlets 
may be arranged near the floor or the ceiling. The 
diagram shows the result of ventilation with different 
positions of the inlet and the outlet. The curved lines 
indicate the current of air circulating in the room. In A, 



HOW TO VENTILATE THE HOUSE 



35 















~*#, 







Different Arrangements of Openings for Heating and 
Ventilating 

the square represents a section through a room. The 
pure air is supposed to enter through a register at /, 
rise to the ceiling, and be drawn out through the outlet, 
at O, near the ceiling. The dotted line, called the 
"breathing line," represents the level of the head of a 
person sitting in the room. With this arrangement of 
inlet and outlet, half of the room remains unventilated. 



36 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



In C, the inlet is on the floor and the outlet also near 
the floor, but on the opposite side of the room. Is 
there any portion of the roon not ventilated by this 
arrangement? Can you explain B, D, and E? 

The Best Arrangement. — The best ventilation is 
obtained when the air circulates throughout every part 
of the room, as represented in F. The air enters the 
upper part of one wall, at /, strikes against the opposite 
wall, falls to the floor where it is drawn off through an 
outlet, 0, near the base of the same wall. A fireplace 
or opening into a flue in the chimney would draw off 
the foul air. 

Ventilation in Summer. — During five or six months 
of the year, according to the locality, the weather is so 
mild that our windows and doors are open, and the 

ventilation takes 
care of itself. But 
in winter the venti- 
lation must depend 
upon the method of 
heating, the possi- 
bilities of ventilat- 
ing, and upon our- 
selves. 

Circulation of Air 
with a Gas or Oil 
Heater. — With the first cold weather some people use 
a gas or an oil heater for warming one or two rooms. 
This is almost certain to make the air of a room unfit 
for breathing. The figure above represents the circu- 




ClRCULATION OF AlR WITH A 

Gas-Heater 



HOW TO VENTILATE THE HOUSE 



37 



lation of air in such a room. When the window is 
closed, as it usually is, to keep out the cold air, the 
same air is breathed and heated over' and over again 
until the upper part of the room becomes unbearable. 
Conditions are improved by opening the window. 

The Gas-Log. — The gas-log is another enemy of 
fresh air. It sucks up cold air from the floor and heats 
it so that it rises and spreads out over the room. As it 
cools, the foul air falls to the floor, only to be caught 
again in the vicious cir- 
cle. Any large opening, 
if near the gas-log, serves 
as an inlet rather than 
an outlet of air. The 
gas-log calls for heroic 
ventilation through the 
window. 

Ventilation with 
Stoves. — There are still 
many rooms heated with 
stoves. From your own 
experience and from this figure, perhaps you can tell 
how the air circulates in the room represented. A small 
opening at the top of the window is always needed for 
fresh air, even if it is cold air. 

Ventilation and Hot Air Heating. — When heating 
with hot air, the problem of ventilation is half solved. 
Pure air is heated, and driven into the rooms; but 
where does it go after it becomes foul? It may be sucked 
into another room, or up or down a stairway. Possibly 




Circulation of Air with 

a Stove 



38 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



there is a fireplace which will draw it up the chimney, 
or perhaps there is an opening into a ventilating flue 
or shaft. 

Circulation of Air from Radiators. — When heating 
with hot water or steam, heat comes from the radiator 
and no fresh air is admitted through the heating ap- 
paratus. Air is sucked up from the floor and heated 

over and over again. 
Fresh air, even if cold, 
must be admitted by 
way of the windows if 
no other means of ven- 
tilation is provided. 
(See the figure.) 

Ventilating Shafts. — 
The fireplace and its 
opening or flue offer the 
best way of withdraw- 
ing foul air from a living-room or bedroom. In many 
instances its use for ventilation and decoration are its 
only excuses for being used so extensively. A ventilat- 
ing shaft may be built in any partition, where a 
fireplace would be impossible. A shaft is only a very 
long, narrow, wooden box, and may be built from the 
first floor to the roof. A register in the baseboard of 
the room opens into the shaft, and provides for the 
exit of impure air. 

Systems of House Ventilation. — Most small houses 
and most apartment houses are without any system of 
ventilation. The builders are far more anxious to heat 




Circulation of Air from a Radiator 



HOW TO VENTILATE THE HOUSE 



39 



than to ventilate such houses, The doors and windows 
must do the work of ventilation. Houses of the better 
class are being equipped with some system of ventilat- 
ing as well as of heating. Arrangements are made for 
drawing of! the foul air as well as for admitting warm, 
fresh air. 

Value of Living Out-of-doors. — People are just 
beginning to realize the value of living out-of-doors. 
Piazzas and balconies 
on houses and apart- 
ments, trolley and 



steamboat riding, pub- 
lic baths and parks, 
open air schoolrooms 
and camps, all testify 
to the universal desire 
to be out-of-doors in 
the summer. 

Sleeping Out-of- 
doors. — The well and 

the Sick are not Satis- A Sleeping Porch 

tied with being indoors even at night. Many are 
sleeping out-of-doors. Careful arrangements should 
be made for protection from the ground, the rain, the 
winds, and the cold. 

A Sleeping-Porch. — A balcony or a piazza, especially 
if it opens out of a bedroom, is an ideal place for sleep- 
ing. Many balconies are being built for this special 
purpose. The balcony should have screens or awnings 
and very little furniture, possibly only the bed. Plenty 




4° 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



of warm clothing and a hood for the head are necessary 
in cold weather. All clothing is kept in the bedroom 
which serves as a dressing-room. 

The Window-Tent. — When a porch is not available, 

it is still possible to have 
the head out-of-doors. 
Sometimes the head of 
the bed is merely slipped 
out of the open window 
for one or two feet; and 
the person then sleeps in 
the open. A window- tent 
accomplishes the same 
result. The bed is placed 
along the wall of the bed- 
room with its head in 
front of the window, and 
the canvas cover of the 
tent is arranged across the head of the bed as in the 
accompanying picture. When the window is open, the 
head of the person is practically out-of-doors. W T ith 
any of these arrangements abundant protection from 
the cold is necessary. 




A Window-Tent 



Summary. — i. Those who are out-of-doors most of the time are 
less liable to have certain diseases, like consumption, pneumonia, bron- 
chitis, and colds, than those who stay in the house all of the time. 

2. Ventilating every room of a house thoroughly every morning 
helps to keep the air pure. 

3. Good ventilation depends upon providing plenty of pure air, 
avoiding draughts, and providing means of escape for the foul air. 



HOW TO VENTILATE THE HOUSE 41 

4. Both an inlet and an outlet are necessary for a circulation of 
the air. 

5. The benefits of sleeping out-of-doors are increased vitality and 
strength for the sick or well. 



Questions. — 1. What is the difference between deep and shallow 
breathing ? 

2. How do you ventilate your bedroom at night ? During the day ? 

3. Make a drawing showing the ventilation of your schoolroom. 

4. Is there a ventilating shaft? Study the direction of the air. 

5. Did you ever keep a record of the temperature of the school- 
room? Some pupils might be appointed to note the temperature 
and record it on the blackboard every hour during the day. 

6. What is the proper temperature for living-rooms? 



V. HOW TO WARM THE HOUSE 

When the logs are burning free, 
Then the fire is full of glee: 
When each heart gives out its best, 
Then the talk is full of zest: 
Light your fire and never fear, 
Life was made for love and cheer. 1 

Henry Van Dyke. 

The Ideal Warmth. — Some persons give little thought 
to the best way of warming their homes. When we 
step into their houses, the rooms seem damp, chilly, and 
cold. When we go into other houses, the air is so hot 
and dry that it seems to strike against the face. Such 
houses are poorly heated, and are unhealthful to live 
in. When we step into a perfectlv heated house, it 
should be like stepping from winter to summer. The 
air should be mild, balmy, warm, and free from all un- 
pleasant odors. Draughts of pure or foul air should 
both be absent. The house should be so comfortable 
that we are unconscious of any heating or ventilating. 

Loss of Heat from the House. — Heating must be 
continuous in winter in order to make a house com- 
fortable. Heat escapes from a house in many ways. 
Some heat passes directly through the walls, although 
they may look solid enough. Some heat goes up the 
foul air passages or fireplaces. Much cold air comes 
in around windows, doors, and vestibules. In a bleak, 

Copyright, 1904, by Charles Scribner's Sons. Used by permission. 

42 



HOW TO WARM THE HOUSE 43 

exposed position, a house is harder to heat than in a 
sheltered location. The rooms on the north side of 
a house are usually colder, and are heated with more 
difficulty than those on the south side. A room often 
seems much warmer than it actually is, when the bright 
sunshine is streaming in at the windows. 

Requirements of a Heating Plant. — The heating 
plant of a house is unsatisfactory unless it will heat 
the house comfortably even in the coldest weather. 
It must also have some device for regulating the amount 
of heat in mild weather. It must be comparatively 
simple in construction and durable, so that frequent 
and expensive repairs will not be necessary. Since it is 
usually run by some member of the family, the heater 
should be simple to work, for often it is neglected in the 
rush of other duties. It should also be economical in 
fuel, and be protected against loss of heat. At best, 
the cost of coal is a heavy item in household accounts. 

Heating by Gas. — Illuminating gas is seldom used 
alone for heating a house in very cold weather. In the 
spring and fall, some persons find it convenient and 
economical to heat one or two rooms in this way. It 
may be used either in a gas-log or a gas-heater. The 
latter has the advantage of being portable, and may 
be connected with rubber tubing to any burner. This 
is a quick way of heating a single room, as a dining- 
room or a bathroom. Burning gas always makes the 
air impure, and care should be taken that all of the 
connections are tight, and that no gas escapes into the 
room. This is an expensive way of warming a room. 



44 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Heating by Oil. — Oil is sometimes used in a heater 
resembling a gas-heater, but is seldom depended upon 
for very cold weather. The oil-heater is also portable, 
but makes the air of a room very foul. A window 
should always be open when a heater is burning in a 
room. The gas and oil-heaters are both easily con- 
trolled, and there is no waste of fuel, but they are both 
great destroyers of pure air, and must be watched care- 
fully to prevent accidents. 

Heating by Stoves. — While stoves for heating dwell- 
ings have gone largely out of use in most city houses, 
they may still be found in some of the older apartments 
and stores. In many rural districts they are still in 
general use. A house may be heated comfortably with 
stoves, but some arrangement should be made for let- 
ting in pure air, and for drawing out foul air without 
draughts. 

Disadvantages of Using Stoves. — There are many 
disadvantages in heating a house with stoves. First, 
it is hard work to care for two or three stoves. Coal 
must be carried up stairs, and the ashes carried down. 
The stove must be kept blacked, and the floor under 
and around it kept clean. A stove makes a great 
amount of dust in the room, so that it has to be swept 
and dusted very often. Many people take their stoves 
down in the summer, and put them up again in the fall. 
All this makes extra work. Unless the room is carefully 
ventilated, the air is heated over and over again, so that 
it seems like " burnt air." Stoves furnish a very dry 
heat, and it is customary to have a dish of water on the 



HOW TO WARM THE HOUSE 45 

top of the stove to supply moisture to the air. It is no 
wonder that stoves have been discarded whenever possi- 
ble in favor of a heating apparatus located in the cellar. 

Heating with a 
Furnace. — Probably 
more city dwellings 
are heated by hot- 
air furnaces than in 
any other way. If 
your house is heated 
in this way, you can 
examine the pipes in 
the cellar, and can 
see exactly how the 
heating is done. The 
entire system con- 
sists of a cold-air 
box, a furnace, a 
smoke -pipe, warm- 
air pipes, and regis- 
ters. The diagram 
shows the general arrangement of the different parts in 
a single house. 

The Cold-Air Box. — Cold air is taken to the furnace, 
heated, and then rises to all the rooms of the house. 
The cold-air box is the long wooden or metal box in the 
cellar which carries the cold air to the furnace. The 
outer opening is in one of the basement windows, and 
should be covered with iron netting to keep out cats 
and waste paper. The inner end opens into the base 




Heating with a Furnace 



46 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

of the air-chamber of the furnace at the side or the back. 
There is a slide or damper in the cold-air box to regulate 
the amount of air admitted. 

The Furnace. — The furnace should stand near the 
center of the cellar, so that the heat may reach all of 
the rooms of the house. The furnace is double, and like 
two cylinders, one inside of the other, but entirely 
separate. The cold-air box opens into the outer cylin- 




DlAGRAM OF A FURNACE 



der, called the air-chamber, because it contains air 
only. Here the air is heated by the inner cylinder, and 
rises into the pipes that open out of the top of the air- 
chamber. The inner cylinder contains the fire. The 
upper part is the fire-box, which is separated by the grate 
from the ash-pit beneath, which holds the ashes. The 
fire-box should be perfectly tight around the sides. If 
there are any cracks the coal gas, which is very poison- 
ous, and the ashes will escape into the air-chamber, and 
thence go up into the rooms. When you look at the 
outside of your furnace, you see the outside of the air- 



HOW TO WARM THE HOUSE 47 

chamber. When you look inside your furnace, you 
see the inside of the fire-box or ash-pit. If you rap on 
the outside of the furnace, it sounds hollow, showing 
that there is a vacant space within. There is usually a 
water-pan in the air-chamber with an opening through 
the outer wall of the chamber. This is to furnish 
moisture to the air. 

The Smoke-Pipe. — Opening out of the back of the 
fire-box is a pipe connecting with a flue in the chimney, 
to carry off the smoke 
and the gases of the 
burning coal. This 
pipe is fitted with a 
damper for regulating 
the draught. 

The Hot- Air Pipes. Smoke-Pipe and damper 

— From the upper part of the air-chamber, tin pipes 
extend to all of the rooms of the house. Those to the 
first floor open directly into registers in the floor. The 
pipes to the rooms on the second and third floors pass 
up in the partitions to their corresponding floors, and 
open into registers. The register can be closed, or a 
damper in the pipe in the cellar turned, when it is 
necessary to shut off the heat from any room. Some- 
times the hot-air pipes are double, or are wrapped in 
asbestos paper to save the heat. 

The Care of a Furnace. — The work that a furnace 
can do depends largely upon the way in which it is run. 
If well run, a house should be continuously supplied 
with fresh, warm air. Less cold air should be admitted 




48 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

in very cold and windy weather than on mild days. 
Occasionally — once a year — the cold- air box should be 
dusted out, so that dust will not be carried up into the 
rooms. This part of house-cleaning is usually neglected. 
A slow, steady, deep fire is the most economical in burn- 
ing fuel. A small fire is more easily kept with small 
coal than with furnace coal. The ashes should be 
removed daily, and the pit kept clear to obtain a good 
draught, and to prevent burning out the grate. 

The Advantage of Heating with a Furnace. — Better 
ventilation may be obtained with a furnace than with 
hot-water or steam-heating. The first cost of setting up 
a furnace is less, and it requires less skill to run, than 
either a hot-water heater or a steam-boiler. 

The Disadvantages. — There is dust from the pipes 
and cold- air box, — and sometimes ashes, smoke, and coal 
gases from the fire, if all the seams are not fitted per- 
fectly tight. The amount of heat varies. When the 
fire is low, the air is cold. It is hard to heat on a very 
windy day. There is a limit to heating with hot air, 
as the air becomes cold in a very long pipe or in a hori- 
zontal pipe. Sometimes the lower rooms of a house are 
cold, while the heat rises to the upper stories where it is 
not so much needed. 

Heating with Hot Water. — Under some conditions, 
a furnace will not heat a building successfully. Many 
of the newer and the better houses are heated with 
hot water. In this kind of a heating plant, water in- 
stead of air is heated in the cellar, and carried in pipes 
to the various rooms of the house. 



HOW TO WARM THE HOUSE 



49 



The General Plan. — The different parts of a system 
for heating with hot water are a boiler in the cellar to 
heat the water, a smoke-pipe, and pipes extending up 
to every room to carry the hot water. A radiator in 
each room to give out heat, and return-pipes to carry 
the cool water back to the boiler to be heated over 
again are also necessary. There is also a tank of water 
in the attic with a pipe for an overflow. 

The Circulation of Heated Water. — The entire 



J? 



:0 



3> 



Model of Water Heating System 



system of hot-water heating depends upon 
the fact that water moves or circulates 
when heated. If a flask of water is held 
over a lamp, the water directly over the 
flame will rise, and then descend in all the 
other parts of the flask. This can be easily 
seen if sawdust is placed in the water. 
The Model. — If possible fit up a model of a small 
heating plant like that shown in the figure above. The 
lamp represents the boiler; A, the supply-pipes; and 
B, the return-pipes. Heat the water in the flask, and 
notice the action of the water. What is the use of the 
filling pipe (C) and the expansion pipe (D) ? 




5 o HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

The Heater or Boiler. — To one accustomed to a 
furnace, the size of a hot-water heater is a great sur- 
prise. A heater will do the same work as a furnace 
nearly twice its size. It is made of iron, and consists 
of a fire-pot, a grate, and an ash-pit, similar to a furnace. 
The outside of the boiler is usually covered with asbes- 
tos or some other substance to prevent the heat from 
escaping. 

The Supply-Pipes. — In the upper part of the fire- 
box is a coil of iron pipes filled with water, which is 
warmed by the fire directly beneath. A single pipe 
leads from this coil, through the top of the heater, to 
the different stories of the house. Often there are 
branches leading into the different parts of the house. 
These supply-pipes are usually placed in the corner of 
a room or against a wall. They are gilded or bronzed, 
to harmonize with the color of the walls, and help to 
heat the rooms through which they pass. 

The Radiators. — Each room is heated directly by 
the coil of pipes within the radiator. The warm water 
passes up from the boiler through the supply-pipes, and 
through short branches into the radiators. Trace the 
path of the water in the diagram on the opposite page. 
Radiators are usually placed in the coldest part of the 
room, near a window or door, to warm any cold air 
that may enter. 

The Return-Pipes. — Pipes similar to the supply- 
pipes carry the cold water back to the boiler. These 
are the return-pipes, arid usually run parallel to the 
supply-pipes, but may be distinguished from them by 



HOW TO WARM THE HOUSE 51 

their temperature. Short connections run from the 
radiators to these pipes. The return-pipes lead to the 
cellar, where they enter the lower part of the boiler, 
and connect with the coil of pipes in the fire-box. There 
is usually a faucet just 
outside of the heater so 
that the water may be 
drawn out of the pipes. 
The cold water to fill the 
pipes is taken, when pos- 
sible, from the house- 
supply, and the pipe may 
open into the return- 
pipe near the boiler. 

The Tank. — An iron 
tank containing several 
gallons of water is usu- 
ally located in the attic 
or bathroom. It is con- 
nected with a ventilating 
pipe and an overflow 
pipe running, in the walls 
in the cellar. 




Diagram of Hot- Water Heating 
System 



to the bottom of the heater 
This tank is large enough to allow for 
the expansion of the water in the pipes when warmed, 
and to prevent an overflow. 

Running a Heater. — The best results are obtained 
by keeping a steady, even fire in the heater. Too hot 
a fire results in the water boiling in the pipes, which is 
undesirable, although not dangerous. Usually the water 
should not go over one hundred and ninety degrees 



52 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

even in the coldest weather. If the fire should get 
very low the results are not felt so quickly as with a 
furnace, for the water in the pipes will keep warm for 
some time. The fire, however, should never be allowed 
to go out entirely in cold weather, for then the water 
would be likely to freeze and burst the pipes. In order 
to obtain the most heat, a good circulation should be 
maintained throughout the pipes. Sometimes a radia- 
tor is cold and will not heat, even with a good fire. 
This may be due to more or less air that has collected in 
the radiator, and may be remedied by opening the air- 
valve on the upper part of the radiator and letting out 
the air. Every spring after the fires are out for the 
season, it is best to clean out the heater, and make 
any necessary repairs. 

The Advantages of Hot-Water Heating. — The chief 
advantage of heating with hot water is that a steady, 
even temperature may be kept all over the house. It 
will comfortably warm rooms that are a long distance 
from the cellar, or are much exposed to cold winds. 
It costs about one third less to operate than a furnace. 
Consequently it is less work to run, since there are less 
coal and ashes to shovel, and less tending. There is 
little danger of overheating, and it can be run low in 
mild weather. It is a very clean way of warming a 
house, for no dust is carried into the rooms. The plant 
is simple in construction, easy to run and to regulate. 
It is also noiseless. 

The Disadvantages. — The chief objection is that 
there is no chance for ventilating as well as warming. 



HOW TO WARM THE HOUSE 



53 



Some other arrangement must be provided fpr admit- 
ting fresh air. It is also more expensive than a furnace 
to put into a house, but this is soon offset by the reduced 
cost of running. 

Steam-Heating. — 
Many large apart- 
ment houses are 
heated by steam. 
The principle of this 
system is the fact 
that when steam 
changes to water, 
or condenses, it gives 
off heat. 

The Pipes.— This 
system is similar in 
general to that for 
hot -water heating. 
It consists of a boil- 
er, supply-pipes, re- 
turn-pipes, and radi- 
ators. It must be stronger, however, and differs in the 
details of the boiler, valves, etc. The diagram shows 
the arrangement of pipes sometimes used. 

The Advantages. — For large buildings steam is a 
very efficient means of warming. It may be carried 
long distances, and several buildings may be warmed 
from a central plant. It is especially useful in build- 
ings used only during the day. 

The Disadvantages of Steam-Heating. — It is expen- 




Steam-Heating System 



54 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

sive to .run. It takes more coal than a hot-water 
system, and requires more skill. Steam is difficult to 
regulate. When turned on, the rooms may be over- 
heated, and when turned off, the rooms soon become 
too cold. Steam-pipes are often very noisy when the 
steam comes in contact with cold radiators. 

Summary. — i. It is just as injurious to have a room too warm 
as it is to have it too cold. 

2. Houses are warmed by hot air, hot water, and steam. 

3. The most important parts of a hot-water or steam-heating plant 
are the boiler, the supply-pipes, the radiators, and the return-pipes. 

4. A house may be warmed most economically and easily with hot 
water. 

5. Warming with hot air furnishes pure air as well as heat to the 
rooms. 

6. Steam heat is better adapted to large office buildings, where it is 
not necessary to regulate the amount of heat to the different uses of 
the rooms. 

Questions. — 1. What are the disadvantages of using gas and oil 
for heating ? 

2. How is your home heated ? 

3. What are the advantages of the method? The disadvantages? 

4. What is the cleanest way of heating a house ? Why ? 

5. Why does a furnace sound hollow when you rap on the outside 
of it? 

6. Why does a furnace sometimes fail to warm a house? 



VI. HOW TO LIGHT THE HOUSE 

Ere you enter in this door, 
Or set your foot upon the floor, 
Give good luck to me and mine, 
As I do to thee and thine. 

Old English Motto. 

Natural Lighting. — All of our light comes, originally, 
from the sun. On bright, sunny days the direct rays 
of light may shine straight into our rooms, or they may 
fall on objects outside of the house, and so be reflected 
through the windows. Any strong reflection or glare, 
as it is sometimes called, is very injurious to the eyes, 
and we should pull down the window-shades to avoid it. 
We should never sit facing a bright light of any kind. 
On cloudy days all light is reflected from the sky, the 
clouds, and bright objects about us. 

A Well-Lighted Room. — The satisfactory lighting 
of a room depends upon several things. The sur- 
roundings of the house are very important. A broad 
street and open spaces between the houses will admit 
much light. Trees, broad piazzas, low roofs, or eaves 
will cut off the light. The number and position of the 
windows determine largely the amount of light admitted. 
The windows on the sunny side make a house more 
cheerful than those on the north side. The window- 
shades and draperies may keep out light that is much 
needed, or they may only subdue a strong light. The 
color of the walls, floor, and furniture also help to make 

55 



56 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

a room light or dark. Light colored furnishings reflect 
the light and make a room appear lighter, while dark 
furnishings absorb part of the light. 

Artificial Light. — In winter, when the days are short 
and often cloudy, we depend largely upon artificial 
light. Many substances have served our ancestors to 
give light, including pitch-knots, candles, and oil. With 
artificial light, the use of the room should be kept in 
mind. In some rooms, a soft mild light is needed in 
every part. In other rooms, a bright light is needed 
in some particular place, and only a little light in the 
rest of the room. 

Burning Kerosene. — Kerosene is a common source 
of light in towns where there is no gas supply. If used 
wisely, and with proper care, the light is good and safe. 
The chief objection to this light is the work and care 
necessary to keep the lamps in good order, and the 
necessity for good ventilation in the rooms. 

Lamps. — There is a great choice in lamps. Metal 
lamps are much safer than glass lamps, especially where 
there are children in the family. The shape of the lamp 
makes some difference in the amount of light obtained. 
A broad shallow lamp is much better than a tall one. 
In a shallow lamp the wick is shorter, takes up more oil, 
and gives a brighter light. A very tall lamp is more likely 
to be overturned, has a longer wick, and gives less light. 

Burners. — The circular burner, with a tube in the 
center for the air draught, gives more light than a 
flat burner. It is called a center-draught burner. The 
light in the lamp is like the fire in the stove. The 



HOW TO LIGHT THE HOUSE 



57 




Center-D r aught 
Burner 



straight draught gives the biggest fire and the brightest 
light. Burners should be made of brass, and have two 
tubes, the large one for the wick, 
and the small one for safety, called 
the safety-tube, to allow the vapor 
from the oil to escape. 

Wicks. — The wick is a very im- 
portant part of a lamp. It should 
just tit the tube, and allow for turn- 
ing up and down, and just reach 
the bottom of the lamp. It should 
be renewed, or washed thoroughly, 
once a month. 

Chimneys. — A good lamp may 
be spoiled by the wrong chimney. 
Each kind of burner has a chimney made especially to 
go with it. It is not enough that the bottom of the 
chimney should fit the burner. The chimney should 
also be of the right shape and height for that particular 
burner. There are over two hundred chimneys of dif- 
erent shapes and qualities. The right chimney is always 
cheapest in the end, for with it the lamp neither smokes 
nor gives off bad odors. It lasts the longest, and gives 
the best light. 

Cleaning the Lamp. — Lamps should be cleaned 
and filled every day. Filling with oil drives out any 
vapor there may be in a half -empty lamp. Pieces of 
lamp black or matches on the burner should be wiped 
away. The wick should be cleaned by turning it even 
with the tube, and rubbing off the burned part. Never 



58 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

cut off the wick. The chimney should be washed, 
dried, and replaced on the lamp. Once a week, the 
lamp needs to be entirely emptied, washed to remove 
any sediment, and refilled. Occasionally, perhaps once 
a month, the burner should be boiled in water with a 
little washing-soda. When not in use, lamps should 
be placed in a cool place, not near the chimney over the 
stove, to prevent their filling with vapors arising from 
the oil. 

Safety-Lamps and Burning-Fluids. — In some places 
burning-fluids are offered for sale cheaper than kerosene 
oil. Most of them contain gasoline, benzine, and 
other dangerous liquids. No lamp burning these mix- 
tures is safe. The sale of these fluids is prohibited by 
law in some of the states. 

Burning Gas. — In different parts of the country 
there are several kinds of gas used for lighting. Those 
most commonly used are natural gas, coal gas, water 
gas, air gas or gasoline gas, and acetylene. Which do 
you use at home? Which have you seen burning? 

Natural Gas. — Natural gas is obtained from wells 
from 150 to 3000 feet deep. A small building is erected 
over the mouth of the well, and pipes are laid under 
ground to deliver the gas. This is used in the natural 
condition, and can be sold much cheaper than coal gas. 
A well yields the most gas when first sunk, and then the 
amount gradually grows less. Some of the wells pro- 
duce as much as 3,000,000 cubic feet of gas every twenty- 
four hours. 

The Gas Fields. — Natural gas is used chiefly near 



HOW TO LIGHT THE HOUSE 59 

the gas-wells, but is sometimes conveyed fifty or sixty 
miles to furnish light for a city or town. It is used in 
parts of Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, 
Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Kansas, Missouri, Arkan- 
sas, Texas, Utah, South Dakota, California, and other 
states. In these states there are over seven hundred 
and sixty companies distributing natural gas. 

The Gas Flame. — For lighting, natural gas is usually 
inferior to coal gas. It burns with a bluish-yellow flame 
which is likely to flicker and to be unsteady. It is used 
largely for running boilers and for other industrial 
purposes. In Pittsburgh alone it is used under hun- 
dreds of boilers. 

Coal Gas. — Probably coal gas is the most general 
means of lighting dwellings. If the proper burners are 
fitted and regulated, it gives a steady, brilliant, white 
light. With the right shade, it may be adjusted to the 
different uses of the house, whether for general lighting, 
or for close work like reading. It is easy to turn on 
and off by merely a twist of the gas-key. It is safe to 
burn with ordinary precautions against fire and leaks, 
and is little trouble to care for. It is also reasonable 
in price if used with judgment. The chief objection to it 
is that it robs the room of pure air. Good ventilation 
must be provided with gas burning in a room. 

The Gas Supply. — In cities and large towns where 
gas is burned, a company manufactures the gas, and 
distributes and sells it to the users. At the gas-house, 
which is usually situated on the outskirts of the city, 
the gas is manufactured from coal, and is stored in a 



6o 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



large, round tank. Pipes are laid in the streets from 
the gas-house or plant to all parts of the city. 

The Gas-Mains. — The large gas-pipe in the street 
is called the gas-main. It is a large iron pipe varying 
in size according to its location, and is usually laid 
about four feet underground to prevent freezing. In 
the diagram, No. i 
represents a section 
of the gas-main in 
the middle of a street. 

The House-Pipe.— 
In front of each house 
there is a pipe ex- 
tending from the 
street main into the 
cellar, No. 2 in the 
diagram. This sup- 
plies the house with 
gas. It 
connects 
with the 
gas-me- 
ter, No. 
3, which measures the amount of gas used in the house. 

The Gas-Pipes. — Connected with the meter there 
is another pipe, No. 4, which carries the gas up into 
the house. Many branches are given off from this 
pipe, and carry gas to all of the rooms. The gas-pipes 
are hidden cut of sight in the partitions and between 
the floors. The rooms of the first floor are lighted from 




System of Piping for Gas 



HOW TO LIGHT THE HOUSE 61 

branches of a long pipe that extends above the ceiling 
of the first floor, from the front to the back of the house. 
Trace the path of the gas in the diagram. Each house 
is piped according to the size and the location of the 
rooms. Of course few houses are piped exactly alike. 

Gas Fixtures. — Chandeliers or brackets are attached 
to the pipes in the rooms. They come in a great 
variety of designs, sizes, and prices, and are selected 
according to the kind of house and the use of the rooms. 

The Burners. — A house may be well -piped, but 
unless the burners are wisely selected, whole, and prop- 
erly regulated, the lighting will be poor. Formerly the 
broad, flat flame of the fish-tail burner and a ground 
glass globe were used, and the room was thought to be 
properly lighted. 

The Incandescent Light. — Now, with the Bunsen 
and a few other burners, a brilliant, white, and steady 
light may be obtained. The modern burner is made 
long and tapering, with many openings to admit plenty 
of air, and to obtain a good draught. The amount of 
air admitted may be regulated at the base. The burner 
may be fitted with different shaped mantles, chimneys, 
and globes according to the use which the lamp is to 
serve. It may be erect, or inverted. Whatever form 
is selected, the lamp should be so placed and shaded 
that the light will not shine directly into the eyes of 
the person using it. 

Causes of Escaping Gas. — Although a house may 
be piped with care at first, there is always the danger 
of gas escaping. There are so many joints in the pipes 



62 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

and fixtures that some may become loosened. Then 
freezing and thawing sometimes make leaks outside 
in the street, and the gas may find its way into the house. 
Carelessness or ignorance is also responsible for many 
accidents. Thoughtless persons sometimes blow out 
gas instead of turning it out. Leaving a flame turned 
very low is dangerous, as a draught of air or an irregu- 
larity in the gas supply may put out the flame, without 
turning off the gas. With gas-heaters and drop-lights, 
many accidents have happened by turning off the 
gas near the burner instead of at the fixture. Some- 
times the tube slips off and allows gas to escape into 
the room. Although gas has been used for many years 
there are still in this country about one hundred thou- 
sand accidents each year and about three fourths of 
them prove fatal. 

How to Detect Escaping Gas. — Gas, fortunately, has 
a very peculiar and characteristic odor, so that one 
readily recognizes it. It is so very penetrating that a 
little gas seems to fill the entire room. But some 
people cannot smell, and they may be in danger with- 
out knowing it. If a leak is suspected, strong soap- 
suds may be rubbed over the joint in the pipe. The 
escaping gas will make bubbles as it pushes its way 
through the soap-suds. 

Another Way to Detect Gas. — There is another sure 
way of detecting escaping gas. The gas-meter in the 
cellar registers all the gas that enters the house. All 
the burners in the house may be turned off, and the 
small hand on the index of the gas-meter may be watched. 



HOW TO LIGHT THE HOUSE 



63 




A Gas-Meter 



If the hand is stationary no gas is passing through the 
pipes; if the hand moves, gas must be escaping, and 
something must be done. Don't look for the leak with a 
lighted match or a lamp. This is 
very dangerous, and is likely to 
cause a lire or an explosion. 

What to do when the Gas Leaks. 
— If the leak is small, and only a 
little gas escapes, send for a gas- 
fitter, and in the meantime keep the 
window open and the door closed 
into the rest of the house. If the 
leak is large the house may be sud- 
denly filled with gas. Then open 
all the windows and leave the house quickly. Call 
a policeman or fireman if help is needed. Lighting a 
match or lamp is the most dangerous thing to do, and 
has caused many fires and explosions. Gas is very 
dangerous to inhale, and even small quantities breathed 
continuously make persons ill. 

Precautions Against Fire. — With care, gas is safe. 
With ignorance and carelessness, gas is dangerous. 
There are many ways in which a house may catch fire 
from gas. Sometimes a gas-jet is too near the wood- 
work of the house, which becomes overheated, and bursts 
into flames. Sometimes a lace curtain or drapery is blown 
against a gas-flame, and sets the room afire. Paper 
shades that become heated are also a source of danger. 
Gas-jets that are in exposed places, like basements 
and passageways, may be protected with wire-cages. 



64 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Danger from Matches. — Matches also are a source 
of great danger. Burnt matches should always be 
thrown into tin or china holders kept for the purpose. 
They should never be thrown into waste-baskets or on 
the floor. Many fires have been set by matches 
thrown down carelessly. Any large quantity of 
matches should always be kept in tin boxes or earthen- 
ware or glass jars, away from mice and rats. Matches 
should be kept out of reach of small children. All 
young people should be extremely careful when hand- 
ling light or fire. • 

Amount of Gas Used. — Gas is sold by the cubic foot, 
and the gas-meter in the cellar keeps the account. An 
inspector calls once a month and takes the reading on 
the index of the meter. Let us suppose the index in 
August read 28,500 cubic feet, and in September reads 
37,900 cubic feet. The difference between the two read- 
ings, or 9400 cubic feet, is the amount of gas used 
between the two dates. If the price of gas is eighty 
cents a thousand cubic feet, the bill is $7.52. Gas 
varies in price in different cities from fifty cents to one 
dollar a thousand cubic feet. Meters are also made 
that will allow a certain amount of gas to pass when a 
coin is dropped into the part of the meter specially fitted 
for it. 

Reading the Gas-Meter. — In order to verify the gas- 
bill every one should know how to read the meter. The 
diagram represents the index of a gas-meter. Only the 
three lower dials are read, as the upper, smaller dial is 
used in testing the pipes and the meter. The dials 



HOW TO LIGHT THE HOUSE 



65 




read from left to right. The first dial on the left indi- 
cates the number of ten thousand cubic feet of gas up 
to one hundred thousand, the limit recorded by the dial. 
This dial reads four ten thousands or 40,000 feet. 
The middle dial indicates the number of thousand feet 
of gas up to its limit of ten thousand. This dial is read 
in the opposite direc- 
tion from the other 
two. This hand indi- 
cates eight thousands, 
or 8000 cubic feet. The 
right hand dial registers 
the number of hun- 
dreds of feet up to its 
limit of one thousand. 
This hand reads seven 
or 700 cubic feet. The sum of the number of feet 
registered by all three dials, or 48,700 cubic feet, is the 
amount of gas used since all three dials stood at zero. 

Water Gas. — Most of the gas burned in large cities 
is a mixture of coal gas and water gas. The water gas 
is made from steam and heated coal, and is much cheaper 
than coal gas. When unmixed with coal gas it has no 
odor ; and leaks are not so readily detected as with coal 
gas. Water gas also contains more poisonous gases, and 
consequently is much safer to use when mixed with 
., coal gas. When water gas is used alone in a house, it 
is extremely important that all connections should be 
perfectly tight. 

Air or Gasolene Gas. — In towns or villages where 



Index of a Gas-Meter 



66 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



there is no gas supply, and sometimes in large isolated 
buildings, gas made from gasoline is burned. A gas 
machine is set up and pipes laid to the rooms or houses 
to be supplied. Gasoline and air are supplied to the 
machine, and the gas is formed and stored in a large 
tank. When the burners are fitted with mantles, and 
carefully regulated, a very good light is obtained. 

Acetylene Gas. — When a supply of coal gas is not 
available, acetylene gas is sometimes used. The system 
necessary to make and distribute this 
gas is a generator, pipes, fixtures, and 
burners. 

The Gas-House. — The gas is made 
from a chemical called carbide and 
water. The gas generator is usually 
situated some distance from other 
buildings, and is connected by pipes 
to the buildings to be lighted. The 
pipes and fixtures are similar to those 
used for coal gas. Acetylene gas is 
very explosive, so that great care must be taken to 
have all the fixtures and joints in the pipes perfectly 
tight. A light should never be allowed in or around 
the gas-house. Many accidents and explosions have 
been caused by neglecting this precaution. 

Acetylene Light. — The flame burns with a brilliant 
white light. It is more illuminating than coal gas, and 
less acetylene gas is needed for the same amount of light. 
Burners with small openings are made especially for 
acetylene. The gas has a peculiar odor which is easily 




Burner for Acety 
lene Gas 



HOW TO LIGHT THE HOUSE 67 

detected. It is less dangerous to breathe than coal 
gas, uses up less pure air in burning, and gives off fewer 
poisonous gases. Acetylene gas gives a very satisfactory 
light, but care must be taken in its use to prevent danger. 

Electric Lights. — Electric lighting is now so gen- 
erally used in public buildings that little needs to be 
said in its favor. Its cost is all that prevents it from 
being used everywhere in our homes. With proper 
current, lamps, and regulation, any desired amount of 
light may be obtained in practically any place. Its 
great advantage over lighting by gas is that it takes 
none of the pure air for burning, and it returns no poison- 
ous substances into the air. Electric lights give out 
very little heat. 

The Lighting System. — An electric lighting system 
may be small enough to light one building only, or it 
may light a city. In any case, it consists of three 
essential parts: first, the machinery to generate the 
electricity; second, the wiring to carry the current to all 
the places where light is desired; and third, lamps or 
bulbs to change the electric current into light. 

The Electric Plant. — Electricity is generated at 
the electric plant, which is usually a large building, 
with a very tall chimney. Within are many dynamos 
driven by steam or gas-engines. A visit to one of these 
plants would be more instructive than reading about it. 

Electric Wiring. — We are all familiar with the elec- 
tric wires used for lighting. They are made of copper, 
and are usually covered with rubber or some other 
substance that does not conduct electricity. The large 



68 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



service-wires are laid in the street within tubes, called 
conduits, made of iron, wood, or terra-cotta. Smaller 
wires are used in wiring a house, and are kept out of 
sight as much as possible in walls, partitions, and floors. 
The wire should always be laid so that it will not come 
in contact with any inflammable material. 

The Electric Bulb. — The basis of all electric lighting 
in the house is the electric bulb. If much light is needed, 
several bulbs are used on an electrolier, 
similar to a chandelier for gas. For 
side-lights, brackets are made especially 
for the bulbs. For reading, there are 
stands in many styles for holding one 
or more lights. Electric bulbs are 
made of various sizes and shapes, 
according to their uses. Shades of 
many kinds, made of clear glass, 
ground glass, and ribbed glass of 
H-— sLm — Jn different colors, also are available. 

Regulating Electricity. — One of the 
chief advantages in using electricity is 
Electric Bulb the ease with which it may be con- 
trolled. It is easily and quickly turned on and off by 
simply turning a button. The lights of each room are 
usually wired together so that it may be lighted with- 
out turning on the lights in any other room. Switches 
and keyboards also help to regulate the use of 
electricity. 

The Meter. — The electric meter, with a dial some- 
what like the gas-meter, registers the amount of 




HOW TO LIGHT THE HOUSE 69 

electricity used in the house. It should be accurate, 
durable, and easily read, since its correct reading is 
essential in making out the bill. 

Diffuse Lighting. — The heavy shadows of objects 
and persons are a serious disadvantage in artificial 
lighting. Diffuse light is more like sunlight and throws 
no shadows. The lamp is fitted with two large shades, 
one above and the other below the source of light. 
The ceiling and the upper third of the walls of the room 
are white and the lamp is suspended only a few feet from 
the ceiling. The light is first thrown upward by the 
lower shade onto the upper shade and the ceiling and 
then it is reflected downward to all parts of the room. 
This gives a soft, white light resembling daylight. 

Summary. — 1. Eyesight is one of our most precious possessions. 

2. The amount of artificial light used should always be carefully 
regulated to prevent strain of the eyes. 

3. Oil, gas, and electricity are used commonly for lighting. 

4. Many accidents occur from the careless and ignorant use of gas. 

5. Leaks in the gas-pipes may be discovered by the odor of gas, or 
by watching the hand of the meter with all of the burners turned off. 

6. A leak in a gas-pipe should be repaired immediately. 

Questions. — 1. What is the effect upon the light of the room 
when the shades are pulled half way down ? When pulled one quarter 
way down ? When three quarters down ? 

2. How are your shades kept at home? Why? 

3. What kinds of gas have you seen burning? 

4. How do the flames differ? 

5. How should a reading-light be placed ? Why ? 

6. How should lights be placed for the general illumination of the 
room ? Why ? 

7. Where should you turn off the gas of a drop-light ? Why ? 



VII. HOW TO USE RUNNING WATER IN 
THE HOUSE 

"And brim, your cups with nectar true 
That never will make slaves of you." 

James Russell Lowell. 

The Source of Drinking Water. — In towns and 
cities water is supplied to all the buildings through pipes 
laid in the streets. This is a water- 
service, and the owners of the buildings 
or the users pay for the water. In vil- 
lages and isolated places in the country, 
there is usually no public water-supply. 
Each householder must obtain water as 
best he can. Water may be used from 
wells, springs, brooks, lakes, and rivers. 
All wells should be protected from impure 
water by tight-fitting covers and by tight 
brick or stone walls. They should also 
be located some distance from any source 
of impurities. Even then they should be 
tested carefully before using. Springs 
need to be protected as carefully as wells. 
The water of brooks, rivers, and lakes 
Well and Pump j s sa f e on ]y w hen their banks are kept 
clean, and when they are free from the openings of drains. 
Rain Water. — Sometimes rain water is all that is 

available. Then a pipe is extended from the roof to 

70 




HOW TO USE RUNNING WATER IN HOUSE 71 



a large, brick tank called a cistern, built underground 
near the cellar. Here the water is strained or filtered, 
and then it is ready to be pumped up into the house. 
Some people do not like the flat taste of rain water, but 
it may be supplied with air or aerated and cooled, and so 
made palatable. When well cared for, rain water should 
be free from disease car- 
riers or germs, and should 
be safe to drink. Trace 
the path of the water in 
the accompanying dia- 
gram. 

Wholesome Drinking 
Water. — Pure drinking 
water is without color, 
odor, and taste. A brown- 
ish color shows that there 
may be some soil mixed 
with the water. Some- 
times sticks and branches 
of trees or leaves decaying in a well or lake may give 
the water a strong or fishy taste. Any unusual flavor 
or odor of the water shows that the source of the 
supply needs attention, and should probably be cleaned. 
Drinking water should also be free from the germs of 
diseases, like typhoid fever, that are often carried in 
unwholesome water. 

Running Water in the Country House. — It is as 
possible to have running water in a house located in 
the country as in one situated in the city, but it 




A Rain Water System 



72 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

costs more, and requires more attention. There are 
four necessary conditions. First, a source of pure water, 
either a well, spring, pond, lake, brook, or river pro- 
tected from pollution from drains, stables, and animals 
must be available. Second, pipes must be laid under- 
ground to carry the water to a large tight tank or 
reservoir for storing until it is needed for use. A tank 
may be located in the attic of a building or in a wind- 
mill. Third, there must be a pump or other machinery 
for lifting the water up into the tank. This pump may 
be worked by hand or by a windmill. Engines run by 
steam, gas, oil, electricity, or gasoline are often used. 
Fourth, distributing pipes lead from the tank or reser- 
voir to those rooms of the house where water is 
desired. The pipes in the house are similar, to those 
of a city dwelling. 

Simple Arrangements. — Many houses situated in 
the country are inexpensive, and the arrangement of 
pipes or plumbing is very simple. A sink in the kitchen 
with a waste-pipe leading from it is all the piping there is 
in many country houses. Water from such a pipe should 
never be allowed to soil the ground near a house. 
Either the water should be led through a pipe to the 
garden or to a cesspool under ground. 

Piping a City House. — In the city, where land is 
scarce and the dwellings are located close together, the 
houses must be built according to the building laws. 
Three pipes connect every city house with large pipes 
in the street. They are the gas-pipe, the water-pipe, 
and the sewer. The water-pipe, called the water service- 



HOW TO USE RUNNING WATER IN HOUSE 73 

pipe, opens into the street-main which is a large pipe 
six inches or more in diameter and is laid near the 
middle of the street. 

The Pipes in the House. — The service-pipe extends 
from the street-main through the cellar walls three or 
four feet underground. There are usually two shut-offs, 
or stop-cocks, one near the service-main and the other 
just inside the wall of the house. A shut-off is some- 
what similar to a faucet, but the handle is longer and 
has only one part. It is important that every one 
should know where the shut-off is in his house, and that 
there should be a clear passageway to it. Then, when 
a water-pipe bursts, the water can be turned off quickly. 
Inside the wall the service-pipe runs directly to a tank 
situated in the upper story of the building. 

The Storage-Tank. — This tank must be water-tight. 
Sometimes it is made of wood and lined with zinc, 
copper, or lead. Sometimes cast-iron tanks are made 
in pieces which are bolted together, so as to be perfectly 
tight. To prevent the tank from overflowing in case 
of accident, a pipe called the overflow-pipe is connected 
with it near the top. The overflow-pipe may lead to 
some basin, or it may be carried out under the roof to 
the open air. There are three pipes connected with 
the tank, the service-pipe, the overflow-pipe, and the 
delivery-pipe. 

The Cold Water Pipes. — From the lower part of 
the tank a delivery-pipe draws the water from the tank, 
and distributes it by branches to the cold water faucets 
of the house. These branches are the cold water pipes. 



74 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Often the cold water is taken directly from the service- 
pipe instead of from the tank. 

The Sinks and Basins. — The kitchen-sink is used 
more than any other part of the piping or plumbing. 
Wooden sinks which can be kept neither tight nor 
clean are unsanitary. Steel, iron, enameled iron, and 
soapstone sinks do not absorb moisture, are healthful, 
and are generally used. In a large house there is also 
another sink located in the pantry which is used for 
washing glass, silver, and china. 

The Tubs. — The bathtub is one of the most impor- 
tant items of plumbing. There are many kinds of tubs 
on the market, the materials being copper, zinc, iron, 
tile, marble, steel, and crockery. Those most used in 
modern houses are enameled iron. These are immacu- 
late in appearance, and when the outside of the tub 
is painted to harmonize in color with the rest of the 
bathroom, they are very attractive. The bathtub 
rests on four short feet and is not boarded or cased 
around. This leaves no place for dust and dirt to 
collect. In all modern houses, laundry-tubs are set in 
the laundry. In apartments they are in the kitchen. 
Two and sometimes three tubs are set side by side. 
Those of soapstone are the most in use, as they are 
less likely to leak, and do not absorb moisture and 
dirt. 

The Hot Water Supply. — Hot water as well as cold 
water is a great convenience. The water is heated in 
a coil of pipes or iron box called the water-front. This 
is placed in the kitchen-range in front of the coals or at 



HOW TO USE RUNNING WATER IN HOUSE 75 

the back and ends of the coals, according to the kind 
of range. A bath-boiler, for the storage of hot water, 
stands in the kitchen near the range. The water-front 
is connected with the boiler by two pipes, a hot water 

and a cold water pipe. Two 
other pipes connect with the 
top of the boiler, a cold water 
pipe to supply the boiler, and a 
hot water pipe to supply the 
hot water faucets of the house. 
In the diagram trace the direc- 
tion of the water from 
the cold water pipe, A, 
to the hot water pipe, 
B. It passes from A, 
through branch C, 
through the boiler D, 
through the short pipe E, through the water-front F, 
through the hot pipe G, the boiler D, branch H, and 
the hot water pipe B, to the faucets. 
A Faucet. — A section through a 
closed faucet is represented herewith. 
At A is the passage that is opened 
and closed, as the handle is turned. 
Just above the opening is the washer 
B, that has to be renewed occasion- 
ally to keep the faucet tight. 

The Water -Meter. — The meter 
records the amount of water delivered to a house. 
When a city spends millions of dollars to secure a pure 




rw 



A Hot Water Supply 



OOO 




A Faucet 



76 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

water-supply, it is necessary to know how much is 
used. Some cities charge for water according to the 
amount used. Meters also reduce the amount of water 
wasted by calling attention to leaks in the fixtures. As 
much as fifteen per cent of the entire water-supply may 
be wasted. The leaking faucet is responsible for much 
of this. Such cities as New York, St. Louis, Boston, 
Cleveland, Harrisburgh, and Milwaukee use meters. 

The Wastes of a House. — Water has another im- 
portant use in a house, that of carrying away some of 
the wastes. W 7 astes may be grouped as sewage, soiled 
water from sinks and tubs, garbage, ashes, old cans, 
bottles, iron, paper, rags, and other rubbish. 

The Drainage System. — The water system of pipes 
carries water into the various parts of the house. The 
drainage system carries the soiled water and sewage out 
of the house into the sewer in the street. Many 
of the water-pipes and most of the waste-pipes are 
uncovered in modern houses, and may be located with 
little trouble. This open plumbing is a great con- 
venience in locating breaks or leakage. 

The Waste-Pipes. — Under each sink, washbasin, 
and tub is a waste-pipe to carry off the soiled water. 
All of these waste-pipes slope downward, and open into 
a soil-pipe that reaches from the attic to the cellar. 
In a small house, the plumbing is usually so arranged 
that all of the waste-pipes can open into one soil-pipe. 
In a large house, two or more may be necessary. 

The Soil-Pipe. — The upper end of the soil-pipe 
extends three or four feet bevond the roof of the house. 



HOW TO USE RUNNING WATER IN HOUSE 77 

This is necessary, so that the poisonous gases from the 

waste-pipes may escape into the air and not into the 

house. A pipe three or four 

inches in diameter is usually 

large enough for a single 

house. 

The House - Drain. — The 
lower end of the soil-pipe 
bends, and continues in the 
cellar as the house-drain. This 
drain is often six inches in 
diameter, and runs through 
the cellar and through the 
wall at the front of the 
house into the street, 
where it opens into the 
sewer. It may be hung 
from the ceiling of the 
cellar, may rest on the 
floor, or be buried under 
the floor, according to 
the height of the house above the street sewer. The 
house-drain slopes downward toward the street. 

Running Water through the Pipes. — In the diagram 
the passage of water through the pipes from the bathtub 
to the sewer may be traced. When the overflow pipe 
is reached, or the stopper in the bathtub is pulled, the 
water rushes down the waste-pipe, B, to the soil-pipe, 
C, through the house-drain, D, to the sewer which is 
under the street. 




Diagram of Water and Drainage 
Pipes 



78 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



Sewer-Gas. — 111 smelling gases are being formed all 
the time in sewers, and are trying to escape. If the 
drains are not tight, the gas will escape upward into the 
house. The drains must also be fitted with bends or 
traps which hold water, and which prevent the gases 
from rising in the pipes. Water in a trap seals the pipe 
as a cork does a bottle. The constant breathing of 
these poisonous gases even in small quantities is very 




Water Traps 

unpleasant, although it may be difficult to prove that 
they cause actual sickness. 

Traps. — Any bend of a pipe that will hold water 
is called a trap. The trap holds the last water that 
passes through the pipe. A trap is placed in the waste- 
pipe under every tub, sink, washbasin, and closet in the 
house, as well as in the house-drain just outside of the 
cellar wall. Different kinds of traps are represented 
in the above illustration. The simplest trap is 
shown at A, being merely a bend in the pipe, and is 
sometimes used in the house-drain. B illustrates the 



HOW TO USE RUNNING WATER IN HOUSE 79 

trap that is often used under a washbasin, and shows 
the cleanout which is easily unscrewed for cleaning out 
the trap. C and D show traps that are commonly 
used under bathtubs, kitchen-sinks, or laundry-tubs. 
In the bathroom, the trap may be hidden in the floor 
with the upper part or cap on a level with the floor. 
£ is a section of the trap in the kitchen-sink with the 
strainer in position. 

Ashes. — Ashes should be regularly removed, at least 
once a week. Some cities require that all ashes shall 
be kept in iron barrels or receptacles. Many fires have 
started from the placing of hot ashes or live coals in a 
wooden barrel or box. If ashes are sifted, a modern 
covered sifter should be used, to prevent the dust from 
escaping into the cellar. In most cities the health de- 
partment attends to the collecting of the ashes. In 
order to be collected, the barrels must be placed out of 
the cellar or on the sidewalk, according to the local 
regulations. 

Ash Disposal in the Country. — Here each house- 
hold takes care of its own ashes. The coal ashes 
are sifted, and may be used to make paths, to fill in 
low places, or to improve the condition of the garden. 
Ashes for these uses should be kept dry, and free from 
garbage and all decaying matter. Wood ashes are 
a well-known and valuable fertilizer for growing plants. 

Garbage in the City. — In most cities garbage also 
is collected by the health department. It should be 
collected daily in the summer and two or three times a 
week in the winter. Garbage from the kitchen should 



80 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

never be thrown into the sink, but should be drained 
and kept covered in a galvanized iron can or barrel. A 
small garbage-house of wood is often built near the back 
door to hold these receptacles. It is very important 
to keep the garbage can covered and the door of the 
house closed, or hungry dogs and cats of the neighbor- 
hood may spill and scatter the contents. 

Garbage in Towns. — On the farm, the scraps of food 
may be fed regularly to the pig, the hens, and other 
animals. In towns and villages, if no animal is kept, 
the garbage may be dried and burned in the kitchen- 
range. There are incinerators that may be attached 
to the smoke-pipe of the kitchen-range for the disposal 
of garbage, but they are not in common use. 

Refuse. — In a house, waste material, like paper, rags, 
straw, etc., is constantly accumulated. The city wagons 
will collect most house refuse. In rural districts it 
should be burned at a distance from buildings and trees. 

Other Rubbish. — There are always old tin cans, 
scraps of iron, broken crockery, glass, plaster, and mis- 
cellaneous articles that cannot be burned. The junk- 
dealer may be glad to take some of these articles, and 
sometimes it is possible to bury a small amount of 
refuse. As a last resort it may be taken to the town 
dump. This is usually situated out of town and out 
of sight from the public road. In many cities each 
house must have two covered receptacles. There must 
be one covered iron barrel for ashes and refuse of all 
kinds, and a second covered iron pail or barrel for the 
garbage. 



HOW TO USE RUNNING WATER IN HOUSE 81 

Cleaning-up Days. — Many cities now have special 
"cleaning-up days " when a great effort is made to clean 
yards, sidewalks, and streets. Usually the sanitary in- 
spector is a leading spirit in the movement, and often 
the co-operation of the children is sought. Sometimes 
a " spotless town " crusade is started. Thousands of 
leaflets are then distributed. The newspapers preach 
the gospel of cleanliness, and print photographs of some 
"guilty backyards." The children are the best aids in 
helping to clean their own yards. 

Summary. — i. Wholesome drinking water is free from disease 
germs and without color, odor, and taste. 

2. Rain water may be made wholesome by filtering. 

3. Running water may be put in the country house as well as in 
the barn. 

4. The system of cold water pipes in a city house includes the 
service-pipe, the tank, the delivery-pipes, the faucets, the tubs, and 
the basins. 

5. The drainage system consists largely of waste-pipes, traps, and 
soil-pipes. 

6. Health demands that all of the wastes of a house should be 
removed quickly and in a sanitary manner. 

Questions. — 1. Can you trace any of the water-pipes in the 
school building? 

2. Where are the waste-pipes? The traps? 

3. What happens when you turn a faucet? Why? 

4. What are the advantages of keeping the different kinds of waste 
separate ? 

5. Why should the garbage-barrel be made of galvanized iron and 
kept covered? 

6. Why is an iron ash-barrel preferable to a wooden one ? 



VIII. HOW TO FINISH AND DECORATE 
THE HOUSE 

" Continual thought upon beautiful things silently brings 
forth a beautiful spirit." — Henry Turner Bailey. 

Healthful Surroundings. — A safe shelter protects 
us from the weather, from disease, and from other 
perils. We have found that a hygienic house must 
supply room and fresh air, proper warmth and light, 
and pure water and safe drainage. But this is not all, 
for men have minds and souls to be cared for as well 
as bodies. The home is the place for the growth and 
the development of the whole girl and boy. Beautiful 
surroundings are as necessary for a cultured person as 
good food. Some persons are willing to go without 
costly food in order to buy a beautiful book or an 
inspiring picture. 

Beautiful Surroundings. — It is desirable for us to 
have beautiful objects about us, so that we shall gradu- 
ally learn to know the beautiful from the common- 
place. If we are thoughtful, we should be able to tell 
whether curtains, chairs, tables, rugs, and china are 
really beautiful, or merely pretty, or fashionable. This 
will soon lead us to love beautiful things in our homes. 
When we have the opportunity, we may help to 
choose them in the place of more highly colored or 
striking furnishings. The beauty of a house does not 

always depend upon its size, or upon the cost of its 

82 



HOW TO FINISH AND DECORATE HOUSE 83 

decorations and furnishings. The culture and taste of 
its owner are more important in selecting those furnish- 
ings that are beautiful and harmonious. Perhaps think- 
ing about houses will help us to arrange our own rooms 
at home simply but in good taste, and help us to keep 
them in good order. 

The Woodwork of a Room. — If we think of the 
dining-room or the living-room at home, we can name 
the different parts of the woodwork. The window- 
frames, the door-frames, the doors, the base-boards or 
mopboards, and the mantle are the chief parts. Can you 
think of other woodwork sometimes found in rooms? 
Usually all the woodwork that is seen in one room, ex- 
cept the floor, should be alike. Sometimes, however, 
the picture-molding and the doors are of another kind. 
As a rule, the wood should all be of the same kind, 
whether pine, whitewood, or oak. It should all be 
finished alike, either painted, stained, or varnished. 
Do you find any wood in the schoolroom that is 
painted? Do you find any wood that is varnished? 
All the woodwork of the room should be of the same 
color as well as of the same finish and kind of wood. 

Finishing Woodwork. — The surface of woodwork is 
always finished, either to preserve it or to improve its 
appearance. The most common ways of finishing wood 
are polishing, varnishing, wax-finishing, oil-finishing, 
and painting. Sometimes woodwork is stained before 
it is finally finished. The use of the room will often 
determine the finish of the woodwork. The reception- 
room or living-room may be finished in white, while 



84 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

the dining-room and bedrooms may be kept in a natural 
brown or stained dark green or dark brown. A chamber 
is appropriate in white, natural wood, or stained. 

The Walls. — The walls are the most important 
area in the finished room. They form the background 
against which the furniture and the pictures appear. 
The walls cover a large space, and may be divided into 
three parts: the dado, the filling, and the frieze. 

Different Spaces. — In medium-sized rooms it is 
seldom that the walls are divided into more than two 
of these spaces. The dado of a room begins at the 
floor, extends upward nearly three feet, and may be 
finished with a molding at the top, to protect the wall 
from chairs. In many rooms the dado is reduced to a 
mere board eight inches high, called the base-board. 
The frieze is at the top of the room, or comes next to the 
moldings just under the ceiling, called the cornice. The 
frieze varies in width, and may be nine inches or more 
deep. It is sometimes finished at the base with a wide 
molding for the display of china or pottery. In small 
rooms, the walls seem higher when the frieze is omitted 
and the picture-molding is placed close to the ceiling. 
The filling is the space from the top of the dado or the 
base-board to the frieze or the molding. This is the 
part that stands directly back of the furniture and 
pictures. 

The Wall Coverings. — The appearance of the wall 
depends upon three things: first, the manner of cover- 
ing; second, the color chosen; and third, the pattern 
selected. There are several ways in which walls are 



HOW TO FINISH AND DECORATE HOUSE 85 

decorated. Some of the most beautiful walls are covered 
with panels of wood. Mahogany, oak, and other 
beautiful woods are used for this purpose, and are so 
finished as to bring out their wonderful grain and color. 
This is very costly, but some of the museums show rooms 




A Room with Walls of Wooden Panels 



entirely finished in wood. Sometimes burlap, canvas, 
or tapestry is used on walls instead of wood. 

Painted Walls. — Some rooms like the kitchen, bath- 
room, or back hall need to have very serviceable walls. 
A painted wall will last a long time, and may be washed 
when soiled. A good color like light brown or green 
makes a very attractive and appropriate wall. Some- 
times when a plain color is desired, a room is calcimined. 



86 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



When walls finished in this way become soiled, how- 
ever, they cannot be washed, as the calcimine also 
comes off. 

Wall-Papers. — Probably most of the walls in small 
houses are papered. A good wall-paper lasts several 




m^m 




Two Good Wall-Papers 

years, with care, so that great care should be taken in 
choosing the paper. It is a great mistake to decide 
upon paper from the small samples made up in books. 
When possible, two lengths of the paper side by side 
should be held up against the wall to be papered. The 
light, the size of the room, the color of the woodwork, 
the rug, and the furniture should all be considered before 




A Good Design 



HOW TO FINISH AND DECORATE HOUSE 87 

deciding upon the paper. The two most important 
matters in choosing a paper are: first, the color, and 
second, the pattern. Most papers are made with some 
color predominating, as green, brown, red, blue, or pink. 
Some are made with a light 
background and with a figure 
of a darker shade. 

Choosing Wall -Papers. — 
After deciding upon the gen- 
eral color of the paper, it is 
necessary to think of the 
pattern or figure. Good plain 
papers without figures are the 
most satisfactory in many 
rooms. They are not so likely to fade or to become 
tiresome. They also make a more satisfactory back- 
ground for pictures. Next in value stand the two- 
toned papers in stripes, lines, or inconspicuous figures. 
These papers are called two-toned because they are 
printed in two tones of one color, green, brown, etc. If 
there are only a few pictures, or only very small 
pictures in a room, a figured paper may be desirable. 
One with an all-over pattern and showing little back- 
ground is the most pleasing. Conventional designs are 
always preferable to natural effects. 

Wall-Papers to Avoid. — Sometimes our mistakes in 
selecting wall-papers are only discovered after the 
papers are on the wall. Avoid very conspicuous and 
bold stripes, loops, festoons, or set figures. Avoid very 
striking effects. Too large a figure becomes tiresome. 



88 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Avoid a paper with figures arranged in parallel lines in 
several directions, which tempt one to count the figures. 
A good wall-paper should be subdued enough to serve 
as a background to the rest of the room. 

Papers for Different Rooms. — The walls of a vesti- 
bule must be made to withstand exposure to dampness 
and cold. When these walls are not painted, a thick 
embossed paper is suitable. In the hall, a serviceable 
paper is also necessary. It may be medium or dark 
in color, and the background well covered with some 
broken, inconspicuous pattern. The living-room, din- 
ing-room, and reception-room are often papered with 
plain or two-toned papers. In the bedchambers, light 
papers with pretty, flowery, all-over patterns are 
popular. Varnished papers which will not absorb the 
moisture are made for bathrooms. 

The Floors. — The floor is next to the wall in impor- 
tance in the completed room. Good floors add very 
much to the appearance of a house, and with good and 
constant care will last for many years. In the better 
houses most of the floors are of hardwood, pine, oak, 
or maple. They may be varnished or waxed and pol- 
ished, and are easily cleaned. The floor in the vesti- 
bule is often tiled. It is made of inch cubes of marble 
or tiles of one or two colors. Those laid in geometrical 
patterns are the most attractive. Tiles may also be 
used in the bathroom. The kitchen floor is usually a 
good, oiled, hard pine floor. 

The Ceilings. — The ceiling is another large area in 
a room which must receive attention. The wrong 



HOW TO FINISH AND DECORATE HOUSE 89 

treatment of this space may make a room appear too 
high or too low. There are many ways of finishing a 
ceiling, depending upon the size, the height of the 
room, and the cost. A well-decorated ceiling adds 
much to the appearance of the furnished room. 

Plain Ceilings. — The simplest way to finish the 
plastering on the ceiling is to whiten it from wall to 
wall. If this is not desirable, it may be given some light 
tint to harmonize with the walls or carpet. Sometimes 
ceilings are painted to cover imperfections or cracks or 
patches in the plastering. Painted borders of flowers, 
fruit, or autumn leaves are out of place on the ceiling. 
A plain surface is always to be preferred. 

Papered Ceilings. — Sometimes the ceiling as well as 
the walls of a room may be papered. Light colored 
papers with small geometrical patterns are made ex- 
pressly for ceilings. Papers with large floral patterns 
should never be put on ceilings, as they make the room 
appear very low. A room with a papered ceiling always 
looks smaller than one with a plain white ceiling. Some- 
times a large room, with the wall and ceiling spaces 
very sloping and cut up, may be improved by allowing 
a well-covered paper to run up over the ceiling. 

Decorated Ceilings. — In very elaborate rooms the 
ceilings usually form part of the decorations. Open 
ceilings without plastering are often used, and the large 
floor beams are finished like the rest of the woodwork. 
Plaster ceilings may be divided into spaces or panels 
by moldings. Such spaces are usually tinted to har- 
monize with the woodwork. Ceilings are sometimes 



go 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



covered with canvas, embossed paper, stamped steel, 
and other coverings which are held in place by moldings. 
The Windows. — There should be plenty of windows 
in a house to admit light and air, two prime necessities 
for health. A room without a window opening to the 
outside should never be used for sleeping. The dark 




A Room with Attractive Windows 



bedroom has proved one of the perils of city life. Clear 
plain glass always looks well, although plate-glass 
is used in the best houses. Small panes often give 
a pleasing effect to an otherwise clear space. Leaded 
glass looks well in suitable places, like a hall. The 
so-called "art glass" is not very suitable for houses, 
as most of the colors and designs are crude. 

The Doors. — The doors usually match the woodwork 
of a room in color and finish. But with white painted 



HOW TO FINISH AND DECORATE HOUSE 91 

woodwork, mahogany or white doors may be used. 
When the effect of a large space is desired, the doors 
may be removed, or be made to slide into the wall. 
The large doorway may be left open or curtains or 
portieres may be hung to cut off a draught of cold air. 

Permanent Furnishings. — Window-shades and ranges 
are usually put in place before a house is ready for the 
family. The window-shades should be alike all over the 
house, and should harmonize with the color of the ex- 
terior. No bright color should be used that would not 
be likely to harmonize with the furnishings. Medium 
shades of green and linen color are the best for the 
eyes, and they are likely to harmonize well with the 
colors of furnishings. 

Principles of Decoration. — Experience has taught us 
many facts in regard to choosing and arranging our 
rooms. Reading and trying experiments in our own 
rooms will teach us many more. The three essentials of 
a satisfactory room are good proportions, harmo- 
nious color, and suitable furnishings. It is difficult 
to make a success of a very low or a very high room, 
of a very long or a narrow room, or of a very irregular 
room. The decorations and furnishings must be so 
selected that the low room shall appear higher, for 
example, by raising the picture-molding. The very 
high room may be improved by using a wide frieze. 
In many ways the apparent size and shape of rooms may 
be changed. 

Color in Decorations. — In a successful room the 
color must be right. We may forgive mistakes in poor 



9 2 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

patterns on the wall, or unsightly furniture, but we can 
never forget glaring clashes of color. The general color 
of a room should be subdued and restful without being 
gloomy. It should be harmonious without being monot- 
onous. Very unusual as well as very brilliantly 
colored furnishings should be avoided. It seems a 
great problem to obtain harmony of color out of the 
many objects of different colors in one room. Let us 
see how other people have solved the problem. 

Color Schemes. — Whatever colors are used in 
decorating a room, there should be a gradation from 
the floor to the ceiling. The darkest shades should be 
on the floor coverings, the next lighter on the walls, 
and the lightest tones on the ceiling. One way of 
producing harmony in the color of a room is to have 
all of the furnishings of one color. For example, in a 
brown room the lighter tints and the darker shades of 
brown should be used to relieve the monotony of a 
single color. White curtains and table covers may 
improve the room. Another plan would be to use two 
colors instead of one. One dark color like green could 
be used for the rugs and furniture, and a little red or 
yellow in the hangings and covers would brighten the 
room and make it more cheerful. 

Contrasting Colors. — Sometimes two strong colors 
are used in the same room. The colors chosen should 
be complementary, as dark red and dark green, olive 
yellow and dark blue, or dark green and dark violet. 
The dark shades of these colors should always be selected 
as the brighter tones would make a room too brilliant 



HOW TO FINISH AND DECORATE HOUSE 93 

and highly colored. Some good combinations of colors 
are : violet and amber, dull orange and slate blue, 
chocolate and pea green, deep red and medium gray, 
sea green and golden yellow, golden brown and olive 
green, deep blue and yellowish green, and indigo and 
light olive green. It would be well to try these colors 
together, and see which combinations you prefer. 

Summary. — 1 . The appearance of a house depends very largely 
upon the finish and decorations. 

2. An attractive house lessens worry and discontent, which are 
harmful to health. 

3. Most of the woodwork of a room should be alike in color, finish, 
and kind of wood. 

4. The wall is the most important space of a room, and serves as 
a background for the furnishings. 

5. Hardwood floors are most healthful as well as substantial and 
handsome in appearance. 

6. The plain white or light tinted ceilings are best for small houses. 

Questions. — 1. What rooms have you seen with a dado? With 
a frieze? 

2. What kinds of wood do you know? 

3. Can you bring to school a piece of pine, white wood, or spruce? 

4. Can you bring to school some samples of wall-paper, and tell 
w T hether they are attractive or not? 

5. What kinds of wall-paper are suitable for different rooms? 

6. What kinds of wall-paper become tiresome ? 

7. Where are painted walls suitable? 

8. What are some color combinations that are appropriate for 
rooms ? 

9. What colors harmonize with green, brown, and blue? 



IX. HOW TO FURNISH THE HOUSE 

"Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to 
be useful or believe to be beautiful." — William Morris. 

General Principles. — The decorations of a room form 
a background for the furnishings and for the family. 
Any plan or scheme for decoration needs to be carried 
out in the furnishings. These should be selected with a 
thought for their fitness for the place and their proper 
color relations. Right proportions should always be 
remembered. A small room or house would be 
smothered in furnishings that would be entirely suit- 
able for a larger space. Furniture and curtains made 
for one room would often be entirely out of place in a 
room devoted to other uses. If the color of the furni- 
ture, curtains, draperies, rugs, and covers does not 
harmonize with the walls, the room will not be a success. 

The Useful and Beautiful. — Many people think of 
useful and beautiful things as entirely distinct, just as 
they have common, plain suits and elaborate gowns. 
As some one has said, "The ideal of beauty is simplicity 
and repose." So we may select useful and simple fur- 
nishings that shall also be beautiful. A house should 
never be overfurnished, so that there is little room 
left for the family to move about. There are many 
ways of furnishing the same house beautifully, so that 
there is ample opportunity for each person to select the 
things that he likes. 

94 



HOW TO FURNISH THE HOUSE 95 

The Hall. — The first impressions of a person are 
always lasting. So the appearance of the first room 
that is seen — the hall — is important. A hall should be 
cheerful, dignified, and somewhat formal. Good halls 
may be made in dark red, green, terra-cotta, or brown. 
The hall is used probably more than any other room 
of the house, so that the furnishings should be durable 
and of good quality. 

Hall Furnishings. — The wall-paper may be dark 
and serve as a neutral background for the different 
rooms that open into the hall. The rugs should be ser- 
viceable, and not show the footmarks of every chance 
caller. The thick, rough mat outside the front door will 
save some dirt from being carried into the house. Few 
pieces of furniture are really necessary. A good dark 
chair, table, and umbrella-stand will furnish a small 
hall. When there is room, a high-backed settee, a small 
wooden hall chair with a box-seat, and a mirror may 
be added. A few good pictures give color to the walls. 
Pictures of places or buildings are appropriate to the 
hall. Good Japanese prints are also attractive. 

The Floor Coverings. — The right coverings for the 
floors add much to the appearance of the house. Floors 
may be covered with carpets, rugs, or mattings. 

The Carpets. — The day has passed when all of the 
floors of a house were covered with carpets. Many 
houses today have no carpets tacked down. The great 
disadvantage of carpets is that they collect and hold 
dust which is only carried out of the house once or twice 
& year. Carpets, however, have some good points. 



96 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

They deaden the sounds in a house, for usually there is 
a layer of thick, padded paper under a carpet. They 
also make a house warmer by stopping any cracks that 
there may be in the floor. Carpets also give more color 
to the house. On the whole, the uncleanliness and 
great labor connected with the use of carpets has gradu- 
ally resulted in their banishment. 

The Rugs. — The use of polished floors and rugs is 
very largely taking the place of carpets and mattings. 
The waxed floor has a very substantial, solid, and dis- 
tinguished appearance. Any severity and monotony 
may be relieved by the use of well-selected rugs. 

Variety of Rugs. — The problem of selecting the 
right rug for any place becomes difficult when we look 
at rugs. There are many k,inds, colors, sizes, and pat- 
terns. There are rugs made of widths of carpeting by 
adding fringe at the ends. There are rugs woven with 
a complete pattern and border around the four sides. 
Rugs are shown in all colors. Some have one solid 
color, and some have patterns in two or three colors, 
and still others are woven of many colors. Oriental 
rugs are in the greatest demand for their beautiful 
coloring and harmonious effects. When these are out 
of the question, a good substantial rug made in a small 
pattern and subdued color will prove satisfactory. 

The Living-Room. — The largest, pleasantest room 
may be furnished simply, substantially, durably, but 
attractively, as the living-room. One large rug in the 
center of the floor is better than many small ones. This 
may be woven in one piece or may be made of breadths 



HOW TO FURNISH THE HOUSE 



97 



of carpeting with or without a border. It may be solid 
in color or have a geometrical pattern. Elaborate 
flower designs are out of place in a carpet or rug. We 
dislike to walk on the representation of flowers as well 





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A Room showing Simplicity and Taste 

as on the real flowers. The furniture should be sub- 
stantial, comfortable, and beautiful. In the living- 
room, dark oak or dark green is appropriate. Several 
chairs of different sizes and a couch are useful in this 
room. A substantial table is needed for the reading 
lamp and magazines. Cases for books, a piano, and a 
desk may also be useful in some families. 

The Furniture. — In the shops, furniture of every 
style, color, design, and wood is offered for sale. French 
furniture is slender in outline and often highly decorated 



98 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

in colors and tapestry. Dutch furniture is solid, heavy, 
and substantial. There are many different styles in 
English furniture, much of which has been brought to 
this country. Mission furniture is much in favor to- 
day. It certainly is substantial and strong, and some 
of the chairs are very comfortable. Often only a few 
pieces of this kind of furniture are needed for a room. 

Furniture for Different Rooms. — Mahogany furni- 
ture, which is very much desired for its color, is especially 
good in a library, living-room, or dining-room. Oak 
chairs if stained dark are desirable for a hall or dining- 
room. In a living-room, hall, or reception-room, the 
chairs should not all be alike. They should, however, 
be of the same wood, of the same color, and of the same 
general style. In the dining-room, all of the small 
table chairs should be alike. 

The Pictures. — The culture and taste of the family 
is always shown by the pictures on the wall. Pictures 
need to be selected, framed, and hung with great care. 
The pictures that are adapted to a house are sometimes 
merely photographs of views. These should be selected 
with great care. Some popular pictures tell a story, like 
"Can't You Talk." At first they are very attractive 
but many soon become tiresome. Reproductions of the 
pictures of great artists are the most satisfactory in 
the end. Perhaps there are some fine pictures in the 
schoolroom or at your home. Perhaps the public library 
or a museum may have good pictures. Neither funny 
nor sad pictures should hang upon the walls of a room. 
A picture should be an inspiration for better living. 



HOW TO FURNISH THE HOUSE 99 

Pictures for the Home. — A few reproductions of 
good pictures for the home are: the "Sistine Madonna" 
by Raphael, the "Frieze of the Prophets" by Sargent, 
"A Decorative Angel" by da Forli, " Innocence" by 
Reynolds, and "Aurora" by Guido Reni. Perhaps 







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A Good Picture for the Home 

" Aurora," by Guido Reni 

copies of the landscapes of Corot and Inness or the 
animals of Bonheur and Landseer may be selected. 

Framing Pictures. — A frame about a picture sepa- 
rates it from all other objects. Brown photographs 
may be framed in brown of a tone a little lighter than 
the darkest parts of the print and darker than the 
lightest portions. Water-colors and colored Japanese 
prints may be framed with white mats and narrow gilt 
frames. Oil-paintings usually have dull gilt frames. 

Hanging Pictures. — A picture should hang by two 
pieces of picture-wire from two hooks attached to the 
picture-molding. It should be low enough so that a 
person standing can look into the center of the picture. 



too HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Pictures should be grouped carefully to give the best 
results, photographs in one place, oil-paintings in 
another, and water-colors in still another. In arranging 
pictures a certain balance should be preserved between 
pictures or groups of pictures. A horizontal space 
demands a horizontal picture and an upright space an 
upright picture. The smaller pictures preserve the bal- 
ance and make variety. Sometimes hanging a picture 
in different positions and lights helps to determine 
its proper place. 

The Family Portraits. — Pictures that relate to the 
life of the family, like portraits, diplomas, and photo- 
graphs, should be framed as simply as possible and hung 
in the bedrooms. Other pictures of a more general 
character are more interesting to our friends. 

The Dining-Room. — A simple dining-room is always 
in good taste. A large rug in the center of the room, 
or several long ones around the table, help to make the 
background. A beautiful round or square polished table 
is the center of interest. There should also be several 
dining chairs, and perhaps one or two easy chairs. A 
couch or window-seat may sometimes be useful. A 
simple sideboard or a table with hanging shelves will 
be needed unless a china-closet is built into the wall. 

Beautiful China. — In some dining-rooms the beauti- 
ful silver, china, and glass are the chief ornaments. 
Sometimes a wide molding, called a plate rail, is run 
around the walls, two feet or more from the ceiling. 
Here beautiful plates, bowls, cups, and saucers may be 
arranged. No china that is in daily use should be 



HOW TO FURNISH THE HOUSE 



IOI 



kept here. A collection of old pewter would add dis- 
tinction to any dining-room. Only large pieces of silver 
and candle sticks are displayed on the sideboard. 

The Curtains. — 
No room is fur- 
nished without suit- 
able curtains. The 
appearance of the 
windows from the 
street must first be 
considered. In the 
city, in many small 
houses and in apart- 
ments, a thin curtain 
is hung the entire 
length of the win- 
dow. This hangs 
from a brass rod and 

Stops at the window- A Simple China Closet 

sill. These curtains are made of various materials and 
of different colors to harmonize with the furnishings of 
the rooms. Lace, net, silk, or linen are appropriate 
for the living-room, dining-room, or hall. Muslins 
often hang in the bedrooms. 

The Sash Curtains. — Often a short curtain is hung 
from a brass rod at the middle sash and reaches the 
window-sill. Such curtains are useful in a kitchen or 
bathroom and can easily be kept clean. 

The Draperies. — When the appearance of space is 
desired, a door may be removed and a curtain or por- 




io2 HEALTH IX HOME AND TOWN 

tiere be hung in its place. A portiere should harmonize 
with the furnishings on both sides of it. Portieres are 
often made double, with one color on one side and an- 
other color on the other. They are hung by rings from 
a pole extending across the doorway, and drop within 
an inch of the floor. Many beautiful textiles are sold 
for portieres, including tapestries, brocades, silks, and 
velours. Denims and burlaps are not to be ignored. 

The Covers. — These same materials may also prove 
useful as covers for couches or window-boxes. Even as 
covers for cushions and pillows they are much more 
decorative than the painted heads or colored animals 
so often seen. 

The Kitchen. — Although out of sight to the casual 
caller, the kitchen is one of the most important rooms 
in the house. Everything in the kitchen should be 
useful, kept absolutely clean, and in its place. With 
the stoves, sink, and table there is little room for un- 
necessary objects. The laundry-tubs are also in the 
kitchen in many small houses. When the floor is poor 
and full of splinters, a good linoleum, similar to a thick, 
plain oil-cloth, may be laid over the entire floor. A 
well-kept kitchen is the pride of a good housekeeper. 
She is known by the condition of her kitchen rather 
than her reception-room. 

The Bedroom. — The ideal bedroom is sunny and 
clean. The place where we spend a third of our time 
should receive thought and care. A good motto would 
be that taken from an old sun-dial, a The sun shines for 
all." Even the paper on the walls should be light and 



HOW TO FURNISH THE HOUSE 103 

airy. Papers with a white or cream ground and pink, 
blue, or yellow flowers are most popular. Even the 
furniture may be white or light in color. Curtains, 
draperies, and covers should all add to the daintiness of 
the room. In the rooms used only for sleeping, little 




A Comfortable Bedroom 

furniture is needed. The bed, a small table at the head 
of the bed, two or three chairs, a bureau or a dressing- 
table and mirror, and a wash-stand should be enough 
for one person. Two single beds or "twin beds" are 
now preferred to the old time double bed. A few good 
pictures and well-selected ornaments are more restful 
and more easily cleaned than a number of knicknacks. 
The Bedroom and Sitting-Room. — A bedroom must 
often serve as a living or sitting-room to countless 
people who board in large cities. Then great care is 



io4 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

usually taken to hide the most evident bedroom fur- 
nishings behind screens and in closets. The substantial 
and comfortable couch may serve as a bed at night. 
Chairs, tables, books, shelves, good pictures, and suitable 
curtains must complete the transformation by day. The 
furnishings should be durable and resemble those of a 
living-room, rather than light and dainty like a bedroom. 

The Girl's Room. — How pleasant it would be if 
every girl could have a pretty room of her own! Then 
she could help fit it up in her favorite color — pink, blue, 
or yellow. Good rugs on the floor, light wall-paper 
and furniture, and spotless white curtains would make 
a dainty room. Here a girl can keep all of her personal 
belongings. This is the place for the book-case to hold 
her few intimate books. Here she may keep her family 
of dolls, her collection of photographs, of stamps, of 
games, or whatever interests her most. A pretty 
room must be kept in order and perfectly clean to be 
attractive. How much we can tell about a girl from 
the way in which she keeps her own room ! 

The Boy's Room. — In too many houses there is no 
room for the boy. So he finds a place for himself on 
the street or in somebody else's yard. Still a boy 
usually has more possessions than any other person in 
the house. Where is he to keep his skates, his hockey 
stick, his wild Indian costume, or his baseball bat and 
other necessities, if not in his own room? He usually 
cares little for color schemes, and his furniture must be 
substantial and durable. A case for his books and a 
cabinet for his collections will make it possible to keep 



HOW TO FURNISH THE HOUSE 105 

the room in order. For if he is to become a valuable 
citizen, he should acquire habits of order and neatness 
about his room. 

Results. — With all our thought and expense, we 
have only provided the setting or surroundings for the 
family. As Dr. Gannett has said: "And still one thing 




A Boy's Room 

remains to furnish the House Beautiful, the most im- 
portant thing of all, without which guests and books 
and flowers and pictures and harmonies of color only 
emphasize the fact that the house is not a home. I 
mean the warm light in the room that comes from kind 
eyes, from quick unconscious smiles, from gentleness 
in tones, from little unpremeditated caresses of manner, 
from habits of thoughtfulness for one another, all that 



io6 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

happy illumination which, inside of a house, corre- 
sponds to morning sunlight outside falling on quiet 
dewy fields." 

Summary. — i. The decorations and furnishings of a house should 
harmonize. 

2. The various rooms of a house should be furnished according to 
their uses. 

3. The living-room should be the pleasantest room in the house. 

4. Furniture should be selected with reference to its use and its 
style of make. 

5. Curtains should soften the direct sunlight rather than exclude the 
light and air. 

6. Curtains that can be laundered are more sanitary than heavy 
thick fabrics. 

7. Cleanliness is the ideal of kitchen and bedroom. 

Questions. — 1. What makes a useful object beautiful? 

2. What furnishings are suitable for a hall ? 

3. What floor coverings are most hygienic? Why? 

4. How shall we choose our rugs ? 

5. What furnishings are necessary in a dining-room ? 

6. What pictures would you like for your home ? 

7. How should a picture be framed? 

8. What does a girl like in her room ? 

9. What would a boy like ? 



X. HOW TO CARE FOR THE HOUSE 

That house indeed is firm and stout 
Which can keep all trouble out. 

Old English Motto. 

Houses Built for Years. — In the olden times houses 
were so well built that they lasted for years. There are 
several houses in New England that have stood for 




The Fairbanks House 

two hundred and fifty years or more. The Fairbanks 
house in Dedham, the Pierce and Blake houses in 
Dorchester, the Nurse house in Danvers, and the Roger 
Williams house in Salem were all built in Massachu- 
setts previous to 1650. Many of the old houses situated 
in the cities have been pulled down to make room for 
modern fireproof structures. 

107 



108 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Constant Care Necessary. — In order to keep dwell- 
ings in a satisfactory condition, repairs and good care 
are necessary. The floors and rugs will show the marks 
of boots, and walls and woodwork will be scarred by fur- 
niture and hands. The exterior of a house will become 
weathered from the action of sun and storms. If leaks 
in the roof are neglected, the rain will do lasting damage 
to the paint, wall-paper, and furnishings within. Water 
from leaking pipes can do great damage in a short time. 
If the paint is not renewed on the exterior, the wood in 
places soon becomes worn and weather-stained, and 
begins to decay. 

The Care of the Furnace. — The heating system 
requires constant care. The ashes should be removed 
from the furnace or boiler daily, so as not to burn out 
the grate above them. Everything should be done, to 
keep the cellar as clean as possible, for much of the dust 
and dirt may be carried up into the rest of the house. 
Once a year, probably in the spring, after the fire is 
out for the season, the furnace needs to be thoroughly 
cleaned. It is a good practice to clean also the smoke- 
pipe and cold-air box. The registers in all of the 
rooms may be taken up and wiped out. Then it is 
possible to clean out the register boxes in the floor and 
the hot-air pipes for two or three feet. If the iron 
parts of the outside of the furnace have become rusty, 
they need to be painted. If any of the parts are broken, 
this is a good time to repair or replace them. 

The Hot Water System. — After a time the joints 
of the iron pipes in the hot water and steam systems 



HOW TO CARE FOR THE HOUSE 109 

may become loosened. Immediate repairs will save 
damage from the escaping water. The valves of the 
radiators are especially likely to wear out and need 
attention. Spots on the ceilings of many rooms tell 
the story of leaking radiators in the rooms above. 

The Kitchen-Range. — A good range is one of the 
most important additions to a house. For the sake of 
appearance, and to prevent rusting, the range should 
be kept blacked and the nickel trimmings polished. 
Sometimes the fire does not burn freely. Pieces of 
wood and coal may have become lodged in the air- 
chamber between the top of the oven and the top of the 
stove. After removing all the covers, this space may 
be cleaned out with the poker and the small stove- 
shovel. This air-space should be kept free for the 
draught from the coals to the chimney. Perhaps a 
more thorough cleaning is necessary. Did you ever 
see the furnace man open the back of the stove? He 
has a long brush which he pushes into the air-space 
between the oven and the outside of the stove. As 
much as a hodful of ashes and cinders are sometimes 
removed from a range. 

A Poor Draught. — Air is necessary for a fire. The 
stronger the draught is, the brighter the fire burns. If 
the kitchen fire suddenly refuses to burn well, probably 
the draught is checked or stopped. There may be an 
opening around the funnel, where it connects either with 
the chimney or the range. Perhaps a brick has become 
loosened in the chimney, and fallen down inside, stopping 
the opening. Perhaps the opening in the chimney has 



no HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

become filled with soot and needs to be cleaned out. 
It is necessary to investigate the trouble, find the cause, 
and remedy it before the fire will burn briskly again. 

The Gas-Range. — The gas-range is much simpler 
and easier to use and to care for than the coal-range. 
It also needs to be kept blacked and the nickel parts 
polished. The drip-pans under the burners need to 
be kept clean by washing and scouring. Occasionally 
it is advisable to take off all the removable parts and 
wash them thoroughly. But even a gas-range will wear 
out, and an old one may be improved in appearance by 
a coat of black paint made for iron work. 

The Gas Fixtures. — Leaks in the gas fixtures are 
very likely to occur where burners or tubing for drop- 
lamps are attached. If a little thick paint is put on the 
burner before screwing it in, the joint will be tighter. 
A small leak may be temporarily stopped by rubbing 
on hard soap, putty, or sealing wax. The gas-key used 
for turning the gas on and off may work loose, and 
allow the gas to escape. Tightening the screw on the 
upper side will often stop the leak. Even small leaks 
should be stopped as soon as discovered. Illuminating 
gas of all kinds is very dangerous to breathe. 

A Good Light Necessary. — With incandescent lights, 
after a burner is once properly adjusted and fitted with 
mantle, chimney, and shade, it may go a long time 
without readjustment. A good light properly shaded 
should be insisted upon for all reading and fine work. 
Reading in a poor light is likely to strain the eyes and 
may result in serious trouble. 



HOW TO CARE FOR THE HOUSE in 

Cleaning Fixtures. — It is desirable to keep brass jets 
and chandeliers clean and bright. Almost all brass 
gas fixtures are covered with a smooth coating of lacquer 
to prevent tarnishing or turning dark. Cleaning chan- 
deliers with any scouring polish will take off the lacquer 
and scratch the brass. If a gas fixture has become very 
dark and dingy, it may be rubbed all over with emery- 
paper to remove all of the lacquer. Then a new coat 
of lacquer may be applied to the fixture. This treat- 
ment will give a clean but dull finish which, however, 
some prefer to the shining brass. 

When a Water-Pip e Leaks. — Keeping the pipes of a 
house in order is of great importance. When there is 
only a small leak in a water-pipe, and it is desirable to 
keep the water turned on, a basin or pail may be set 
under the leak to catch the dripping water. Send for 
the plumber, and have the leak repaired as soon as 
possible. If a pipe bursts, and the water threatens to 
do much damage, first shut off the water at the house 
stop-cock, and then send for the plumber. 

Thawing a Frozen Pipe. — When a pipe freezes it 
often bursts and makes a bad leak when thawed. When 
the water is frozen, any exposed parts of the pipes 
should be examined for unusual swellings. A slight 
freeze may be thawed by applying hot cloths about 
the pipes. Often a lighted lamp is used to heat the 
pipes, but great care must be taken, as many fires are 
caused by heating the surrounding woodwork too hot. 

Cleaning the Hot Water Front. — Sometimes it is 
difficult to heat the water, or there may be great rum- 



ii2 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

bling sounds in the boiler. These troubles are some- 
times due to the fact that iron-rust in the water-front 
may partly stop the pipes. In this case the water-front 
must be cleaned out to remedy the trouble. Some- 
times the sounds are caused by overheating the water 
in the boiler. 

The Care of the Kitchen-Sink. — All of the tubs and 
basins must be kept free from lint, but the kitchen-sink 
usually gives the most trouble. Large amounts of fat 
should not be poured down the sink, but should be wiped 
off the pots and kettles before washing them. Once 
or twice a year the trap under the sink may have to be 
opened and cleaned. Much can be done by using 
plenty of hot water three times a day. A thorough 
washing with hot water and washing-soda should be 
given two or three times a week. 

Cleaning Wall-Paper. — When exposed to bright sun- 
light, many kinds of wall-paper fade and change color. 
That is one reason why people pull down their window- 
shades. The sunlight should not be shut out of a room 
unless it is too bright for the eyes. Sunlight makes a 
room cheerful and healthful. We must learn to select 
for a sunny room furnishings that will hold their color, 
and put our more delicate furnishings in the other rooms 
of the house. Some wall-papers can be cleaned some- 
what by rubbing them with crumbs of stale bread or 
Indian meal. It is more satisfactory to keep the paper 
clean than it is to try to clean it. Leaning against 
paper over registers or near radiators and windows 
soon soils and rubs the paper. We can never keep a 



HOW TO CARE FOR THE HOUSE 113 

home beautiful until we learn to keep our hands off the 
paper, woodwork, and furnishings. 

New Ceilings. — Ceilings that are whitened, cal- 
cimined, or tinted should never be wiped or rubbed. A 
gentle dusting away of the cobwebs is all that is possible. 
Trying to rub off the dark circle over the lamp or gas- 
jet will only result in making the ceiling look worse 
than before. Spots, dirt, and soot, can only be re- 
moved by washing the entire ceiling, and applying 
a new coat of calcimine. A papered ceiling may easily 
be repapered, and a painted ceiling may be washed with 
soap and water, or may be repainted. 

Waxed Floors. — A well- waxed oak floor is a great 
addition to any room. It may be kept in good condi- 
tion with less care than a carpet, and is more healthful. 
Once a year or oftener the floor should be waxed and 
polished, first with a weighted brush, and then with a 
cloth. From week to week, a polish with the weighted 
brush will keep the floors in fine condition. If any spots 
are made on a waxed floor they should be immediately 
wiped up with a damp cloth. Then if the places are 
rewaxed and polished, the spots leave no lasting effect. 
If water is spilled on a waxed floor, and allowed to re- 
main, it will make a white spot. Rubbing with a warm 
cloth will make the spot disappear. 

Varnished Floors. — In time the varnish on a floor 
will become scratched. The remedy is to wash the floor, 
remove any stains, and revarnish. Even then, some of 
the scratches may show through the varnish. A floor 
with much wear would need to be varnished once a vear. 



ii 4 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Rubber tips on the ends of the chair-legs will prevent 
them from scratching the floor. 

Stained Floors. — Stained floors are harder to care 
for than those simply varnished. Stained and painted 
floors should be carefully watched for worn places. 
Before all of the varnish has worn off down to the stain 
or paint, these places should be retouched with varnish. 
If the stain or paint is also worn off, it is difficult to 
match the color of the floor without making a spot. 

New Furniture. — The furniture as well as the rest 
of the room should be kept in good condition. Finger- 
marks may be wiped off, and the furniture then rubbed 
with a good polish made of equal parts of boiled linseed 
oil, turpentine, and Japan drier. Broken pieces need 
to be mended. Sometimes the boy who has studied 
woodworking in school can fit in a new piece, or glue in 
the old one. When new furniture is bought, care should 
be taken that it is of the same style, color, and finish as 
that already in the room. Buying bargains in furniture 
does not always produce harmonious results in a room. 

New Draperies. — Curtains, draperies, and covers 
become shabby and worn, and must be renovated or 
thrown away. New ones are selected to take their 
place. But let us remember to buy those that har- 
monize in color with the other furnishings, and are 
appropriate. Covers and draperies for constant wear 
are better made of cotton that will stand washing. 
Brushing and airing out-of-doors will remove much dust. 

New Pictures. — Good pictures are always welcome. 
As we grow in our love and appreciation of the beautiful, 



HOW TO CARE FOR THE HOUSE 



ii5 



it is fitting that our rooms or homes should express some 
of our thoughts. Perhaps it is fortunate that furnish- 
ings do wear out, so that we may have the opportunity 
to secure more beautiful ones. 

A Clean House. — A healthful house must be clean. 
It can never be beautiful unless it is kept clean. There 




A Harmoniously Furnished Room 



seems to be no end of dusting, sweeping, washing, and 
polishing. By studying modern methods, we may learn 
how to keep dirt out of the house as well as how to 
put it out. 

Dust. — One man has written a whole book on the 
subject of dust. The dust-pan will teach us much if 
we examine it after taking up the dust of a room. There 
may be pins, lint, thread, pieces of cloth, sand, splinters 



n6 HEALTH. IN HOME AXD TOWN 

of wood, hair, and many other things. Besides these, 
there is the invisible dust, cast-off skin from our bodies, 
and germs of some contagious diseases. The last may 
be living dirt, and may be ready to develop into disease 
when inhaled by any one. If Ave clean up the coarse, 
visible dirt we are likely to take up some of the invisi- 
ble dirt, which often goes with it. That is the reason 
why keeping clean often means keeping well. 

Places for Special Cleanliness. — While all parts of 
the house should be free from dust, there are some 
places which require extra care. The pantry and refrig- 
erator where food is kept should at all times be free 
from dust, crumbs, and flies. The refrigerator needs 
to be washed out, dried, and aired before every new 
piece of ice is put in. The garbage pail is often neg- 
lected. It should be thoroughly cleaned out with hot 
water and soap two or three times a week. Unpleas- 
ant duties are sometimes neglected unless we form the 
habit of doing them. 

What to use in Cleaning. — There are many prepa- 
rations sold for cleaning, and it is necessary to know 
what to choose, and how to use it, in order to obtain the 
best results. In all cleaning, care must be taken not 
to injure the polish or the surface to be cleaned. The 
following list will give some suggestions for cleaning 
various articles: 

Aluminum ware. — A non-scratching cleaning powder. 
Brass. — Pipes — not lacquered — cleaning powders as Sapolio, 
Bristol brick. Metal polish. 
Gas fixtures — lacquered — warm water and soap. 



HOW TO CARE FOR THE HOUSE 117 

Carpets and nigs. — Sprinkle with damp paper or sawdust and 

sweep or brush. 
Copper. — Non-scratching cleaning powders. 
Enamel ware, bathtubs, etc. — Non-scratching cleaning powders. 
Furniture. — Furniture polish; cloth dampened with kerosene oil. 
Glass, windows, mirrors, etc. — Bon Ami and water. Water with 

a little ammonia. Whiting and water. 
Iron. — Galvanized — cleaning powders. 

Sheet — cleaning powders, stove blacking. 
Mattings. — Cloth dampened in salt water. 
Nickel. — Whiting and water. Warm water and a little 

ammonia. Metal polish. 
Oil paint. — Warm water and soap or whiting; wipe dry. 
Oil cloth. — Warm water and soap or borax. 
Silver. — Whiting powder and water. Electro-silicon. 
Tin ware. — Non-scratching powder or whiting. 
Wall-paper. — Moist bread crumbs. Indian meal. Dry cloth. 



Summary. — 1 . Repairs are necessary to keep a house in good 
condition. 

2. The heating plant, especially, should be kept in order to avoid 
fire and loss. 

3. A hardwood floor should be waxed thoroughly once a year and 
polished weekly. 

4. Cleanliness is the mark of the sanitary house. 

5. Places for special cleanliness are the kitchen, the closets, and 
the refrigerator. 

Questions. — 1. Can you find pictures of houses in America built 
over two hundred years ago? 

2. What should you do when you smell gas ? 

3. How can you detect a leak in the gas-pipes? 

4. What can you do when a water-pipe leaks ? 

5. How can a frozen water-pipe be thawed out ? 

6. What articles help in cleaning? 



XI. SOME ENEMIES OF THE HOME 

"Alcohol and effective work are incompatible." 

Dr. John J. Abel. 

A Danger to the Home. — The use of stimulants and 
narcotics is recognized as one of the greatest dangers to 
the home. They rob the home of money which should 
buy food, clothing, and shelter. They rob many homes 
of happiness. They rob many children of an education 
and a successful start in the world. Their harmful 
influence is so well known that some cities forbid the 
selling of liquors near schoolhouses and parks. In 
Missouri, no alcoholic beverages can be sold within five 
hundred feet of a public park, while in Massachusetts, 
none can be sold within four hundred feet of a schocl- 
house. 

Alcoholic Beverages. — There are many kinds of 
alcoholic drinks used in this country. They include 
wines containing from 6 to 15 per cent of alcohol, malt 
liquors (beer) containing from 4 to 8 per cent of alcohol, 
distilled liquors (whiskey and rum) containing from 25 
to 50 per cent of alcohol, and alcoholic preparations sold 
"as tonics," "bitters," and "celery compounds." These 
medicinal preparations are sold in large quantities, and 
are used by many persons who never suspect that they 
contain alcohol. As a matter of fact they contain from 
14 to 35 per cent of alcohol, which is more than is found 
in much wine and beer. 

118 



SOME ENEMIES OF THE HOME 119 

Alcohol and Health. — Good health is the working 
capital of every man, woman, and child. Alcohol does 
not promote health, and often ruins it. The continued 
and excessive use of alcoholic beverages produces the 
greatest damage to the liver, the kidneys, the heart, 
the blood-vessels, and the nervous system. The amount 
of harm done the person is in proportion to the amount 
of alcohol taken, and is not due to the other ingredients 
of the beverage. The "fine old whiskeys" are nearly as 
likely to produce injury as the cheaper varieties. The 
effect of using alcoholic drinks varies greatly, depending 
upon age, constitutional peculiarities, occupation, en- 
durance, climate, and other factors. 

Effect on Physical Strength. — It was once thought 
that the use of alcoholic drinks would make a person 
able to do more muscular work. The following experi- 
ments by a noted physician proves that a person using 
alcohol does less work. A number of soldiers were 
selected who were of the same age, of the same type of 
constitution, living under the same circumstances, and 
eating the same food. The men were divided into 
two groups, an alcoholic group which drank beer, and 
a non-alcoholic group which abstained from it. These 
two groups were set to work and watched. The alco- 
holic group at first went far ahead. They had buckets of 
beer at their side, and as they got a little tired they took 
beer, and the non-alcoholic group were, in an hour, left 
far behind. After a while, the energies of the beer- 
drinkers began to flag and before the end of the day the 
non-alcoholic group were far ahead. 



I2G HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Results of the Experiments. — When this had gone 
on for some days the alcoholic group begged that they 
might be changed into the non-alcoholic, that they 
might earn a little more money. To make the experi- 
ment conclusive the groups were changed and beer was 
given to the abstainers and withheld from the former 
drinkers. The results were exactly the same. The 
alcoholic group gained on the non-alcoholic at the start, 
and failed utterly towards the end of the day. This is 
one of the most conclusive tests to show that the use 
of alcohol aids physical labor only at first, and that a 
person can accomplish more without it. 

Effects of Alcohol on the Brain. — The chief reason 
for the use of stimulants is their effect upon mental 
action and the emotions. Such drinks are often used 
at the end of the day to relieve both mental and bodily 
fatigue. When they are used to stimulate mental effort 
bad results often follow. All the evidence goes to 
show that no mind is capable of its best efforts when 
influenced by even small quantities of alcohol. 

Alcohol and Character. — However men differ in 
regard to the physical effects of alcohol, they all agree 
that it has ruined the characters of a whole army of 
excessive drinkers. Under its influence men lose cour- 
age, ambition, and determination, and become irritable, 
angry, and often dangerous. Alcoholic intemperance 
is one of the chief causes of crime and murder. The 
abuse of alcohol has caused much unhappiness, misery, 
poverty, crime, disease, and early death. 

Alcohol and Efficiency. — The effect of alcohol upon 



SOME ENEMIES OF THE HOME 121 

a man's working capacity is very important as it reacts 
upon his home and family. Experiments have shown 
that a man may lose ten per cent or more in working 
efficiency from this cause. These tests were made in a 
printing-office with four typesetters. The experiment 
extended over four days. The first and third days 
were observed as normal days, no alcohol being given. 
On the second and fourth days each worker received a 
little more than one ounce of alcohol as wine. 

Conclusions. — A comparison of the results of the 
work on normal and on alcoholic days showed no differ- 
ence in the case of one of the workers. But the remain- 
ing three showed a greater or less retardation of work, 
amounting in one case to almost fourteen per cent. 
If a man could normally earn three dollars a day, a loss 
of fourteen per cent would mean a loss of forty-two cents. 
It has been the experience of many men that they habit- 
ually found it more difficult to work on Monday after 
an over-indulgence of the previous Sunday. 

A Boy's Business Opportunity. — When a boy starts 
in business he finds that competition is so sharp that 
he needs the utmost use of all of his faculties. For the 
greatest success he must not be handicapped by the 
drinking or the smoking habit. Many business firms 
reject boys and young men with such habits. A boy 
must choose between tobacco and the place. Many 
railroads, employing hundreds of thousands of men, 
prohibit the use of intoxicants by their employees while 
on duty. The habitual use and frequenting of places 
where these are sold is sufficient cause for a man's 



122 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

dismissal. Honesty, reliability, steadiness, perseverance, 
application, and industry are the sterling qualities that 
push a boy ahead. None of these characteristics are 
fostered by drinking or smoking. 

Alcohol causes Disease. — The use of alcoholic bev- 
erages predisposes a person to disease in two ways: 
(i), it may be the direct cause of many diseases; 
(2), it may undermine the constitution so that a person 
is liable to take disease and to succumb more easily. 

Experience of Life-insurance Companies. — Life-in- 
surance companies have studied for many years the 
effect of the moderate use of alcoholic drinks. Their 
careful figures and unbiased point of view may be de- 
pended upon to give accurate results. Their figures 
show that abstinence from alcohol increases the average 
chance that a person will attain long life. The records 
of the United Kingdom Temperance and General 
Provident Institution of Great Britain cover a period 
of forty years for both teetotalers and moderate drink- 
ers. In former days it was supposed that an abstainer 
was a greater risk than a moderate drinker. 

Results of their Study. — - A study of the records of 
this company show that in forty years the temperance 
section had only 7487 death claims filed out of 10,463 
"expected" claims; whereas among the moderate drink- 
ers there were 12,811 death claims out of 13,514 "ex- 
pected" claims. In other words the deaths among 
abstainers were but 71 per cent of the calculated proba- 
bilities of death; while among the moderate drinkers the 
deaths were 94 per cent of the calculated probabilities. 



SOME ENEMIES OF THE HOME 123 

Alcohol and Long Life. — From the study of the 
figures of many life-insurance companies in all countries 
the following conclusions may be drawn. First, the 
excessive use of alcohol undoubtedly shortens life. 
Second, even a moderate amount of alcohol habitually 
taken tends to shorten life. Third, that total abstainers 
show a distinctly greater longevity than any other 
persons. These figures become very significant when 
it is known that the life-insurance companies univer- 
sally reject free drinkers. In fact, forty per cent of 
the cases rejected are due to alcohol. 

Smoking. — Smoking is another enemy that robs 
thousands of homes of the necessities of life. Tobacco 
contains a poison, which when used in excess injures 
the general health. It is weakening, enervating, and 
saps the vitality of the user. It does more than this: 
it causes many diseases. Irregularity of the heart, 
indigestion, insomnia, and cancer have ruined the life 
and caused the death of many smokers. Smoking often 
leads to the drinking of whiskey. The mouth heated 
by the cigar or pipe is naturally thirsty. Smoking is a 
great expense. A smoker often spends fifteen cents or 
more a day for tobacco. If he saved fifteen cents each 
day for a year it would amount to $54.75. This sum 
put at compound interest for ten years at four per cent 
would amount to $657.33. 

Evils of Public Smoking. — The habit of smoking 
takes away that thoughtfulness for the comfort of others 
that marks the perfect gentleman. Many indulge in 
smoking in cars, elevators, and other public places to the 



i2 4 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

discomfort of others. Smoking has come to be a public 
nuisance. It is also regarded as a legal nuisance and 
may be regulated or prohibited without interfering with 
the right to smoke in private. The " No Smoking " signs 
should be made more effective. Some cities have 
already adopted an ordinance prohibiting the practise of 
smoking on street cars, classing it as "a most vile and 
objectionable custom to a majority of our citizens." 

Effect of Smoking on Young Men. — Tobacco stunts 
growing youths both mentally and physically. The 
amount of interference with growth has been measured 
in several classes in college. One class was divided into 
three groups: first, those who used no tobacco; second, 
those who had used tobacco regularly for one year; and 
third, those who used it only occasionally. At the end 
of three and one half years it was found that the non- 
users had increased in weight ten per cent more than 
the regular users, and six per cent more than the oc- 
casional users. All scientists are agreed that smoking 
by young men and boys is injurious. As a rule the non- 
smoker is mentally and usually physically superior to 
both the occasional and the habitual smoker. Of the 
students who entered Yale during one year, the smokers 
were fifteen months older than the non-smokers. The 
use of tobacco by young men is closely associated with 
idleness, and lack of application and ambition. 

The Cigarette Habit. — The cigarette is a popular 
form of tobacco especially among boys. About nine 
billion cigarettes are smoked in this country every year. 
This means about three thousand smokes a year for each 



SOME ENEMIES OF THE HOME 125 

man and boy or nearly ten cigarettes a day. This 
habit is so universally acknowledged to be especially 
injurious that eight states have passed laws against the 
manufacture or sale of cigarettes. Occasional smoking 
often creates a desire for the habitual cigarette. No 
boy who smokes can be as healthful, as intelligent, as 
high in moral aim, or as successful as he would be if he 
let tobacco alone. When John B. Gough, the great 
reformer, gave up tobacco, he said, " You are a weed, 
and I am a man. I'll master you if I die for it." He 
did master it. 

Summary. — 1 . Alcoholic beverages affect those who use them 
physically, mentally, and morally. 

2. While stimulants seem, at first, to increase physical strength, 
in the end, they lessen it. 

3. The chief reason for the use of stimulants is their effect upon 
the mental and emotional faculties. 

4. The abuse of alcohol has caused much unhappiness, misery, 
poverty, and crime. 

5. Smoking is especially injurious to boys since it stunts their 
growth. 

6. Our greatest glory is not in never falling, but in rising every 
time we fall. — Confucius. 

Questions. — 1. How does the use of stimulants and narcotics affect 
the home? 

2. How do stimulants affect a man's working efficiency? 

3. How have the life-insurance companies shown that abstainers 
live longer than those who use alcoholic drinks? 

4. How does the use of alcohol predispose a person to disease? 

5. How is smoking an enemy to the home? 

6. How does smoking interfere with a boy's opportunity in 
business? 



i26 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



FOR THE HONOR AND GLORY OF OUR HOMES 

Let us not injure, in any way, any tree, shrub, or lawn. 

Let us not cut or mark in any way, fences, poles, sidewalks, 

or buildings of any kind. 
Let us live in fresh air. 

Let us sleep every night with a window open. 
Let us always read by a good light. 
Let us help to keep our homes clean and orderly. 
Let us be sure that the wastes of the house are removed 

quickly and in a sanitary manner. 
Let us always keep our back yards as clean and beautiful as 

we keep our front lawns. 
Let us eat simple and well-cooked food. 
Let us drink pure water. 
Let us not spit upon the sidewalks, street-crossings, or upon 

the floor of any street-car, schoolhouse, or other public 

place. 
Let us never throw papers or rubbish into the streets. 
Let us at all times respect the property of others as we would 

our own. 
Thus shall we become good and useful citizens, making our 

homes healthful, our city sanitary, our state beautiful, 

and our country illustrious. 



XII THE HEALTHFUL CITY 

"On these municipal questions let there be light, not 
heat." — Lyman Abbott. 

The Successful City. — In order that a city shall 
increase in size and area, it is necessary that the manu- 
factures, industries, and other occupations shall be 
sufficient to support the inhabitants. In addition, peo- 
ple must be able to live hygienically and happily within 
easy reach of their work. 

A Desirable City. — A city, to be desirable as a place 
of residence, must offer inducements to attract capital, 
industries, and people. A city should be sanitary, safe, 
and beautiful — three necessary requirements. 

A Sanitary City. — The most important inducement 
that a city can off er is healthfulness. We are beginning 
to recognize that this is of prime importance. Cities 
of the future must secure for their residents the three 
essentials of health, namely: pure water, pure air, and 
pure food. 

Pure Water. — Many American cities already have 
a safe supply of water. Others are now spending 
millions of dollars to secure a clean supply for the 
future. Some cities have not realized, as yet, the value 
or the necessity of safe water. Many American towns 
have still no public water-supply. Among the most 
notable sanitary improvements during the last ten years, 

127 



128 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

is the development of water-works extending over thou- 
sands of acres and costing millions of dollars. 

Pure City Air. — Probably the next ten years will 
see a great advance in securing for cities clear fresh air. 
Public opinion will need to be aroused to demand that 
we have, both out-of-doors and indoors, this greatest 
necessity of life. Many persons today are unable to 
detect foul air, and seem unconscious of the. fact that 
they are slowly but surely being poisoned by it. 

Out-of-Doors. — Every effort should be made to 
secure breathing-spaces in the midst of cities. Wide 
streets, squares, and parks are great helps in admitting 
air and sunshine between tall buildings. Small play- 
grounds in different sections have proved a blessing and 
pleasure to the children and mothers. Great advance 
has been made during the last few years in providing 
cities with sewage systems and a satisfactory method 
of disposing of waste material. Odors and decaying 
matter are a menace to health, especially in warm 
weather, and impair the life-giving value of fresh air. 

City Cleanliness and Fresh Air. — Cleanliness in all 
the highways and byways of a city will help in keeping 
the air fresh and free from odors. Waste-paper, rags, 
and refuse should never be tolerated in streets, alleys, 
yards, vacant lots, fire-escapes, and balconies. That 
menace to health, the dump, should not be allowed near 
city dwellings nor within sight of a country highway. 
The good results obtained by every effort for more air 
in cities are too often offset by soot from soft coal and by 
bad odors from manufacturing plants. In many cities, 



THE HEALTHFUL CITY 



129 



establishments producing disagreeable odors are obliged 
to locate in the outlying districts. 

The Source of Smoke. — Every tall chimney when 
sending forth volumes of black smoke, is a menace to 
health. Locomotives, factories, power-houses, and all 
large buildings, like hotels, schoolhouses, churches, 















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The Smoke Nuisance 

theatres, and stores add their share toward making the 
air of cities hazy and dim. 

Damage Done by Smoke. — The damage from smoke 
is visible on every hand in a city using much soft coal. 
Smoke injures the foliage of trees and all plant life in 
the parks and streets. It attacks the exterior of build- 
ings, even those of granite, and makes them black and 
rough. It injures the delicate human lungs, making 
them weaker, so that they are more likely to yield to 
diseases. Smoke does damage which cannot be repaired 
to clothing, books, furniture, and pictures. 



i 3 o HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Smokeless Chimneys. — Several cities have already 
solved the problem and cleared their skies of smoke. 
Sometimes a smokeless fuel, as natural gas or hard coal, 
has been substituted for soft coal with excellent results. 
Perhaps electricity will one day be used. But the 
greatest results have been obtained by enforcing laws 
requiring proper tiring and the use of smoke-consumers. 

Reducing the Smoke. — To burn soft coal without 
smoke a smoke-appliance or reducer is used, and proper 
burning or firing of the coal is necessary. In one city 
the inspector takes a photograph of any considerable 
volume of smoke coming from a chimney, and compares 
it with a series of six charts as- a standard. The first 
chart shows no smoke, and the others volumes of smoke 
increasing in blackness. The owner is pronounced 
"passed," or "warned" to comply with the regulations, 
according to the results of the comparison of the 
photograph of his chimney with the standards. 

Smoke Unnecessary. — It has been proved in several 
cities, that it is possible to run boilers without great 
volumes of black smoke, and with a saving of fuel. 
Public opinion must be brought to bear on the problem 
in order that cities may have clear skies. 

Ventilation in Public Places. — We little realize what 
a vast improvement it would be if all places of business, 
factories, offices, and stores were supplied with fresh 
air. A ride in a close, hot car may make one feel unfit 
for a long, hard day's work. The enjoyment of attend- 
ing a theatre or church is often spoiled by the deadening 
effects of close air. A little inconvenience from a 



THE HEALTHFUL CITY 



131 



draught of fresh air is better than enduring foul air. 
Let us insist upon having the ventilators open in cars 
and in other public places. 

Fresh Air in Schools. — Educators are beginning to 
realize the amount of good that fresh air will do sick 
children. Fresh air schools have been established in 




A Fresh Air School 

Providence, Boston, Philadelphia, and other cities for 
children that are sick and delicate. These schools are 
held out-of-doors the year round and produce a great 
improvement in the children. Perhaps some day the 
well children also will be supplied with pure air. 

The Noise of the City. — Another drain upon the 
nerve force of city dwellers is the noise. From morning 
till night, and from night till morning, there is a steady 
hum and buzz in the heart of a great city. Probably 



i 3 2: HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

the whistles of the locomotives and factories are the 
loudest and most irritating sounds. Only one who has 
lived near a freight-yard or station can realize the 
amount of whistling, backing, and starting that goes 
on at night. In a factory city, the factory whistle 
becomes a source of torture at six and seven o'clock in 
the morning and at other times during the day. Here 
a gong could give notice of the beginning of work to 
those in the vicinity. Most workers live too far from 
the factory, today, to profit by the six o'clock whistle. 
Noise is especially harmful to the sick. 

Other Causes. — Any one who has lived in a great 
city can name many other sources of noise. The heavy 
traffic in the streets adds the sounds of hoofs and wheels. 
Motor-trucks and carriages make the streets resound 
with their chug-chug or their shrill horns. The trolley- 
cars and elevated trains are only equaled by the steam- 
cars in creating a thundering sound in their immediate 
neighborhoods. The fire-alarm bell in many cities is 
still a survivor of the bell of the village church, which 
must ring loud and long to bring every man and boy 
to the scene of the fire. In modern cities, the electric 
system and the telephone is much more efficient. The 
fire-engines and fire-automobiles, however, must always 
announce themselves. 

Street Sounds. — The street-pedler or huckster is 
probably one of the greatest obstacles to a quiet street. 
By bells, calls, and horns he announces his wares. 
Much can be done in restricting the wandering brass- 
bands, hurdy-gurdies, and hand-organs. In one city 



THE HEALTHFUL CITY 133 

it is the duty of the music commissioner to see that 
the instruments of street-musicians are in tune before 
giving them licenses to play in the streets. The scream- 
ing of children playing in the streets is often a great 
source of annoyance to neighbors. 

The Effect of Noise on Health. — Noise has a distinct 
effect upon health. Constant and loud noises will, in 
time, make a person hard of hearing or totally deaf. The 
hearing of men engaged in making boilers often becomes 
very much impaired from the great noise. With some 
persons, noise wearies the nerves and brain so that 
permanent harm may result. If proper rest is obtained 
at night, the body has the power of recovering, and after 
a time becomes accustomed to a certain amount of 
noise. The sounds of the city become so habitual to 
some, that when they go into the country they are 
unable at first to sleep on account of the extreme quiet. 

How to Reduce the City Noise. — It is needful to 
distinguish between the noise that is necessary and that 
which is unnecessary. At best, a city is a noisy place, 
and much care must be exercised to suppress thought- 
less and careless sounds. Two ways have been found 
successful, the passing of laws and their enforcement, 
and the work of societies in arousing a public interest 
in the matter. 

Prevention by Law. — A beginning has already been 
made in regulating noise by city laws or ordinances. 
The carting of iron pipes through one city's streets is 
forbidden, unless the pipes are wrapped. A successful 
crusade has been made against whistles in Detroit, 



134 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Chicago, New York, and Cleveland. The shouting of 
newsboys and hucksters has been stopped in other 
cities. One city makes it unlawful to permit any loud 
sounding instrument like the phonograph to be played 
into a street or any public place. 

Results in New York. — As so often happens, pioneer 
work in the improvement of towns and cities has been 
done by public-spirited individuals or a society formed 
for the purpose. One of the hardest fights for the 
suppression of noise has been fought in the city of New 
York. This city is so situated that it is surrounded on 
all sides by deep waters, the Harlem River, the East 
River, the Hudson River, and New York Harbor. In 
all of these waters steamboats, ferries, tugs, and other 
craft are plying back and forth. The noise from the 
shrieking whistles was not only annoying but distressing, 
and much of it was unnecessary. Mrs. Isaac L. Rice 
started the crusade for its suppression. After appealing 
to many of the departments of the city government, she 
found that they had no authority to stop the disturbance 
since the Hudson River is a federal highway. Then 
she carried her case to the United States Government 
at Washington and appealed to several departments. 
None of them had the power to help her. Finally the 
Bennet bill was introduced, and passed in Congress. 
As a result eighty-five per cent of the unnecessary 
noise has been suppressed. 

Work of a Society. — To awaken public sentiment in 
New York, the Society for the Suppression of Unneces- 
sary Noise was formed. Mrs. Rice was made presi- 



THE HEALTHFUL CITY 135 

dent, and many distinguished men and women lent 
their support. The chief work of this society has been 
to enforce a " quiet zone " about hospitals, and to form 
a " Children's Hospital Branch/' Keeping heavy traffic 
and unnecessary noise from the neighborhood of hos- 
pitals has been a great boon to many sick persons. In 
the " Children's Hospital Branch," thousands of chil- 
dren have promised not to make a noise near a hospital. 
The following is one of the pledges which the children 
wrote .in their own words: "I offer up this sacrifice, so 
as to comfort the sick near a hospital and any place I 
know where sick persons are, and to prevent all sorts of 
noise that are not necessary." In other cities societies 
have been started to suppress street-noises. 

The Noisy Fourth of July. — The noisiest day of all 
the year is the Fourth of July. Formerly the "night 
before the Fourth " was made hideous with bonfires, 
tin horns, and shouting. Sunrise on the glorious day 
was hailed with fire-crackers, cannon-crackers, the ring- 
ing of bells, and many boyish pranks. A parade of 
horribles kept up the excitement. Noon was announced 
by more ringing of bells and fire-crackers. The setting 
of the sun was the occasion for more noise. To many 
the fireworks of the evening were the crowning feature 
of the day. 

Accidents. — The celebration in many respects was 
like a great battle : first came the noise of roaring fire- 
arms, then the burial of the dead, and finally the care 
of the wounded. We usually think that large numbers 
are killed in battles. The following table compares the 



136 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

number killed and wounded in some of the battles of 
the Revolution and on each Fourth of July. There 
are twelve times as many killed and wounded each 
Fourth of July as there were in the battle of Bunker 
Hill. This is all the more terrible because it is unneces- 
sary, and sacrifices the lives of children. The most 
deadly causes of accident are the blank cartridges, fire- 
crackers and fire- works. It is hardly necessary to name 
the numbers of those who are made blind or who lose 
a leg, an arm, or a finger. 



Battles 


Killed and 
Wounded 


Celebra 


tions 


Killed and 
Wounded 


Lexington 


83 


July 4, 


1903 


4,449 


Bunker Hill 


449 


July 4, 


1904 


4,169 


Fort Moultrie 


37 


July 4, 


I905 


5,176 


White Plains 


100 


July 4, 


1906 


5,466 


Fort Washington 


149 


July 4, 


1907 


4,413 


Monmouth 


229 


July 4, 


1908 


5,623 


Cowpens 


72 


July 4, 


1909 


5,307 



1,119 34,603 

The Safe and Sane Fourth. — The celebration of this 
holiday was becoming so dangerous in large cities that 
a few persons became aroused by it. As early as 
1903 the danger from firearms was recognized, and a 
movement started against their free use. A few years 
later Mrs. Isaac L. Rice sent an appeal to the Governor 
of every state in the Union and to the President of 
every college for co-operation in the work of stopping 
the slaughter. A hearty response was received. The 
magazines and newspapers have furthered the cause. 
Many prominent citizens have become interested, and 



THE HEALTHFUL CITY 137 

have given much time and work in planning city 
programs to take the place of the time-honored 
celebrations. 

The New Fourth of July. — New York, Cleveland, 
Springfield, Washington, and other cities have already 
succeeded in celebrating the Fourth in an interesting, 
enjoyable, and safe way. The most attractive pro- 
grams include sports, fire- works, processions, ball games, 
historic pageants, band concerts, and folk-games. The 
children take an active part, and enjoy the day. New 
York, the largest city in the country, has made the day 
pleasurable by instituting games and fire- works in forty- 
one parks and squares. Cleveland was the first large 
city to adopt extreme measures. It has prohibited the 
sale, use, and possession of fire-crackers, toy pistols, 
and fire- works of any kind within the limits of the city. 
A great parade including the children, is the chief feature 
of the day. Prizes and medals are awarded for the most 
interesting floats and unique costumes. As a result, 
there have been no deaths. It has been amply shown 
that the Fourth can be enjoyed without loss of life. 
Many other cities have adopted the safe and sane way 
of celebrating the Fourth of July. 

The Safe City. — A city should not only be sanitary 
and protected from disease, but should also be a safe 
place for persons and property. The citizen must be 
protected from fires and from accidents of all kinds. 
In many of the city fires lives are lost as well as millions 
of dollars worth of property destroyed. Persons living 
in a city should be reasonably safe from accidents of all 



138 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

kinds. Every year there are more than eight thousand 
killed in railroad accidents. To this number must be 
added two thousand more killed by horses and vehicles 
and nearly two thousand by street-cars. Even then, 
this makes only a part of the enormous numbers acci- 
dentally killed, yearly, in the United States. 

Safe Streets. — The streets and sidewalks of a city 
must be kept in good condition. In summer, the streets 
must be cleaned, oiled, or watered, and sidewalks must 
'be swept. In winter, snow must be removed from 
streets, sidewalks, and sometimes from the roofs of 
houses. Icy and slippery pavements must, be made safe 
for horses and men by sprinkling them with sand. The 
police must see that there is no disorderly conduct on 
the streets, and that children can pass with safety. An 
efficient police force can do much in preventing thefts, 
robberies, and assaults. The street-crossings must be 
kept free, and the rights of foot-passengers respected. 

Danger from the Automobile. — It has been neces- 
sary to protect the public from accidents by automo- 
biles. So many of these are fatal that there are in the 
United States two deaths from this cause for every day 
in the year. Laws have been passed, and in some 
places are rigidly enforced, regulating the motor traffic. 
The license to drive, the registered number, the rate of 
speed, the lights at night, the places for driving, and 
other matters are subject to law. Cities derive an 
income from the fines imposed for violation of these laws. 

The Meaning of Civic Beauty. — The general appear- 
ance of a city depends upon the streets, the buildings, 



THE HEALTHFUL CITY 



!39 



the vacant land, and the parks. The general plan of 
the streets, their width, direction, grades, and good re- 
pair are important. The kinds and condition of the 
fences, poles, and trees often indicate the character 
of the streets. The sizes and shapes of the buildings, 
as well as their location, are also important. A well- 







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Lake Shore Drive, Lincoln Park, Chicago 



built and attractive residence street has houses of 
approximately the same height and value, but differing 
enough in detail to make variety in its appearance. A 
city cannot be made beautiful after it is entirely built. 
A city must grow beautiful. As new streets are built, 
and new public buildings are erected, they should be 
stately and imposing and an ornament to the city. The 
useful and the beautiful must go together. Each city 
should take pride in preserving for the public any special 



i 4 o HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

advantage of location that it may possess. A fine river, 
a commanding ocean-view or front, beautiful hills or 
mountains, or a wide lake-front may be developed, and 
become a city's most precious possession. 

The Economic Value of Civic Beauty. — The great 
cities of America have discovered that it pays in dollars 
and cents to be attractive. This is shown by the estab- 
lishment, everywhere, of parks and driveways, and the 
erection of fine municipal buildings, such as the public 
libraries of New York, Boston, and St. Louis, and the 
city halls of New York, Philadephia, and other large 
cities. People of wealth and culture are attracted 
to a city of fine, well-kept streets, parks, and public 
buildings. Manufactures and other industries are more 
likely to locate where their employees may live happy, 
as well as busy, lives. Visitors for sight-seeing and 
conventions bring business and money to the city of 
comfort and attractions. 

Work for Civic Beauty. — The work for more beauti- 
ful cities has been conducted on two general" lines. 
First, the suppression of all those features that make a 
city unattractive and unpleasant has been pushed vigor- 
ously. The regulation of unsightly signs and billboards, 
the removal of overhead wires from streets, and improved 
street-paving and lighting, have been accomplished in 
some of the most progressive cities. 

Other Results. — More positive work also has been 
accomplished. The new buildings, bridges, street lamps, 
and all structures erected by the city have been more 
decorative. Many of these have been enriched by 



THE HEALTHFUL CITY 



141 



mural paintings, stained glass, statues, bas-reliefs, monu- 
ments, fountains, and arches. The Municipal Art 
Department is coming to be recognized as a necessary 
part of the government. Art Commissions are appointed 
to aid the city in passing judgment upon all matters 




Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. 

Washington Memorial Arch 
Washington Square, New York 



pertaining to the subject, so that only works of value 
shall find a permanent place before the public. 

Billboards. — One of the greatest obstacles in making 
a city attractive is the presence of huge signs and un- 
sightly billboards. They stand on nearly all the vacant 
lots in a city, as well as on land extending along the high- 
way or railroad-track in the open country. Some of the 
finest roads leading to the suburbs of cities are lined 



i 4 2 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

by billboards covered with advertisements in letters 
and figures of huge proportion. They shut from sight 
beautiful views, stately buildings, fine parks, and boule- 
vards that have been constructed to adorn the city at 
an immense cost. 

Their Extent and Value. — It would be difficult to 
arrive at a correct estimate of the extent of billboards 
in this country. A few figures, however, will give some 
idea of it. In St. Louis alone in February, 1909, there 
were about one million and a half square feet under the 
control of companies and theatres. The total value of 
this property amounted to $140,000 giving an income of 
at least $450,000 yearly. In Chicago one company 
alone has 1,800,000 square feet of billboards. In 
Cincinnati there are about 3,000,000 square feet. The 
income from rents varies according to the location from 
twenty-five cents to six dollars for each square foot. 

Use of Billboards. — By the study of advertisements 
in one city it was found that merchandize of many kinds 
and theatre notices formed the chief subjects. Of the 
entire billboard surface, n per cent was devoted to 
liquor, 10 per cent to tobacco, 9 per cent to theatre 
notices, and 8 per cent to food. The billboards com- 
pete with the daily press in reaching the eye of the 
public. 

Reasons for Complaint. — With their increasing 
demands, billboards have come to be a menace to public 
health, safety, and morals. They are a menace to 
health since the space behind them is likely to become 
a public dump and a meeting place for tramps. They 



THE HEALTHFUL CITY 143 

are dangerous to the public safety if not properly built 
and located. When built of wood they aid in spreading 
fires. Pictures of crime which are often depicted are 
injurious to the morals of the young. 

How to Restrict Billboards. — Successful results have 
been accomplished along four lines of action, namely : by 
control by the police powers of the State, by taxation, 
by prosecution for trespass, and by boycotting the adver- 
tised articles. Some cities already tax the boards from 
one to twelve cents for each square foot, thus securing 
thousands of dollars for the city treasury. It has been 
found that frequently billboards have been erected with- 
out the knowledge of the owners of the land. This is a 
trespass upon the land and may be punished. Much 
can be done in arousing public spirit against the articles 
so advertised. 

Results Obtained. — Laws have already been enacted 
in connection with the building laws in several cities, 
but the greatest difficulty has been to enforce them. 
These laws restrict the height of the billboards, their 
length, their distance from the street, and the size of 
printing upon them. Regulations are now in force in 
many of the larger cities. 

How to Prohibit Signboards. — In New York State, 
automobile clubs have started a movement for the 
removal of advertising signs along the roadside. The Au- 
tomobile Club of America has put up more than twenty 
thousand signs and guide-posts indicating the direction, 
distance, crossings, and curves of the road. The value 
of these has been greatly lessened since they have been 



i 4 4 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

nearly concealed by the ever present advertising sign. 
As a result a bill was passed in the New York legisla- 
ture which prohibits the displacement or injury of mile- 
boards and guide-posts within a public highway. It 
also prohibits the placing of commercial advertisements 
on stones, trees, fences, and buildings without the con- 
sent of the owner, and prohibits entirely such signs 
within the public highway. A person who violates 
this law may be punished, and the signs may be taken 
down by any one. Since the passing of this bill the 
automobile clubs have been active in removing the 
illegal signs along the roadsides. 

Summary. — i. A city should be sanitary, safe, and beautiful. 

2. Clean fresh air is a vital necessity in crowded cities. 

3. Smoke can be suppressed by means of smoke-reducers and well- 
enforced laws. 

4. Health demands that all unnecessary noise of a city shall be 
silenced. 

5. The appearance of the streets, the buildings, and the parks are 
the chief features in making a city beautiful. 

6. Billboards are a menace to the safety and the health of the 
public, and a blot upon the American city. 

Questions. — 1. What must a city have in order to be sanitary? 

2. How may city air be made clean and wholesome ? 

3. How have children helped to stop or lessen unnecessary noise? 
How can you help ? 

4. What is the need of a safe city ? 

5. What have you seen that adds to the good appearance or beauty 
of a street ? What injures the appearance of a street ? 

6. How have the billboards been regulated ? 



XIII. THE PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 

If any round about me play, 
And dance and sing in glad array, 

And laugh and cheer, 
May it be mine to see and hear. 

John Kendrick Bangs. 

The Necessity for Parks and Playgrounds. — The 

establishment of parks and playgrounds in all the large 
cities, and in many smaller ones, proves that the public 
has felt the need of them. Where houses are built 
close together, men and women, as well as children, 
require some place where they can enjoy fresh air, sun- 
shine, and the green grass. Recreation or play is a 
necessity for every one. The children chiefly enjoy the 
playgrounds, while the entire family may profit by 
trips to the woods, the lake, the river, or the seashore of 
the parks. 

The Value of a Park. — The real value of a park de- 
pends largely upon two conditions. Of first importance 
is the location and size. A park should be located near 
a thickly settled district, or be easily and cheaply reached 
by trolley, steam-car, or ferry. In a city park a band 
concert will entertain thousands, and the number is only 
limited by the amount of standing room. Of second 
importance is the selection of the kind of park that the 
residents of a district or a city are best able to enjoy. 
In the heart of a great city a park fitted up partly as 

145 



146 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



a playground is more valuable than merely a stretch of 
green grass, without regard to the size or the expense. 
Kinds of Parks. — The parks found in the thickly 
settled districts are usually small in area, but are much 
enjoyed by those living in the neighborhood. Many 
cities are developing large parks situated in the outskirts 
or suburbs. Boulevards or very wide parklike streets 



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Boulevard on the Bank of a Stream 

are popular with those who drive. The parks of a city 
when connected by boulevards are usually spoken of as 
a park system. 

City Squares. — When two or more streets meet 
they often form an open space, called a square, a tri- 
angle, or a circle, according to its shape. Sometimes 
these spaces are left merely as large open areas with no 
adornment. Often an ornamental lamp-post rises from 
an enlarged base or an isle of safety, and lights the entire 



THE PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 



147 



space. Some squares are large enough to be planted 
with grass and shrubbery, and serve as a pleasant out- 
of-doors resting place in the summer. Fountains and 
statuary often adorn these areas. In the city of Wash- 
ington small squares add much to its attractiveness. 
In that city there are two hundred and seventy-five 




Copyright by Detroit Publishing Co. 

In Central Park, New York 

green spots less than an acre in extent. Thirty-one of 
these are adorned by the statue of a president, a gen- 
eral, or some other distinguished American. 

City Parks. — Some cities have large parks located 
within the thickly settled area. In Chicago, the beauti- 
ful Humbolt Park, Garfield Park, Douglas Park, and 
Washington Park are surrounded by the homes of thou- 
sands of citizens. The three parks on the lake-front, 
Lincoln, Grant, and Jackson Parks, are situated farther 



148 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

from those who most need them. In the heart of New- 
York City, Central Park, containing over eight hundred 
acres, is the chief spot of natural beauty. In the city 
below this point twenty-six small parks, ranging in size 
from one to twenty-one acres, serve as breathing-places. 
Above Central Park in Manhattan there are seven large 
parks. Part of the water-front along the Hudson River 
is preserved in Riverside and Washington Parks, with 
grand views of the river and the palisades on the oppo- 
site shore. 

Parks in Philadelphia. — The chief value of the parks 
in Philadelphia is that they are located within easy 
reach of the residents. There are six large parks, four 
of which extend along the valleys of streams that flow 
into the Delaware River. Of these, Fairmount Park 
is one of the largest in the country and one of the 
most beautiful. It contains over three thousand acres, 
and is reached by trolley-lines, one of which extends 
into the park and carries thousands of pleasure seekers. 
In addition there are seventy-four smaller parks located 
throughout the city in nearly every ward. 

The Boston Parks. — It is said that the best park 
system in the world is that of Boston and its suburbs. 
It is both large in area and so located as to be within 
easy reach. The city squares and playgrounds are 
scattered throughout the thickly settled districts. The 
city parks and boulevards make a nearly complete 
circle from the Common in the heart of the city, through 
Franklin Park in Roxbury, to the Marine Park in South 
Boston. The Common is interesting as being the 



THE PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 



149 



oldest public park in the heart of an American city. 
Boston Common dates from 1634, four years after the 
settlement of the town. It was laid out as "a place for 
a trayning field " and for "the feeding of cattell." Its 
forty-eight acres include rolling green fields separated 
by wide paths which are bordered by fine old trees. 




The Boston Public Garden 

Large Parks. — Some of the largest municipal parks 
in America are located on the borders of cities or even 
beyond their limits. Such parks are not as useful as 
those within the heart of a city. Los Angeles and Kan- 
sas City have large parks near the city limits. Balti- 
more has four large parks situated at the four corners 
of the city. One of these, Druid Hill Park, is among 
the most famous in the country. The care of it as a 



IS© 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



private park for one hundred years has produced most 
beautiful lawns and trees. In St. Louis, Forest Park, 
the World's Fair Ground, is the largest park, and will 

be preserved in its nat- 
ural beauty. 

The Park System of 
Chicago. — The park 
system of Chicago is 
one of the most com- 
plete and extensive in 
this country. It con- 
sists of seven large 
parks, five smaller parks, 
and forty miles of bou- 
levard connecting the 
parks and forming near- 
ly a complete circle. 
The different ways in 
which the several parks 
have been developed are 
interesting. Jackson 
Park was the seat of the 
World's Fair, and still 
retains many lagoons which are suitable for boating. 
Douglas Park contains a summer swimming pool, bath- 
house, an open-air gymnasium, and a playground. Gar- 
field Park possesses a great athletic field and track. In 
Lincoln Park, on the lake shore, are the zoological gar- 
dens and the chief sculptural decorations of the city, St. 
Gaudens' statue of Lincoln and the Grant monument. 




Abraham Lincoln Statue by St. 
Gaudens in Lincoln Park 



THE PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 



151 



County Parks. — The foremost county park system 
in America is in Essex County, New Jersey. This 
contains three large reservations, six parks, and con- 
necting parkways, some of which are still to be built. 
The South Mountain Reservation is noted for its beauti- 
ful mountain scenery, its waterfalls, and its forests. 





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A Well Kept Park 

Eagle Rock Reservation contains a high and famous 
cliff, Eagle Rock, six hundred feet above tide-water. 
From this point wonderful views may be obtained of 
town, country, and river. It is said that it looks upon 
more homes and varied industries than any other natural 
elevation in the world. 

Need of Playgrounds. — Play is necessary for every 
child to develop muscle, brain, and character. A walk 



1 52 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

through the city will show the great danger to which 
children are exposed while playing in the streets. The 
large number of accidents from this source proves that 
city children should have some place in which to play, 
near their homes, besides the streets. 

Meeting the Need. — The demand for space in which 
to play is so urgent in many places that cities are 
establishing playgrounds or are taking charge of those 
already started by public-spirited individuals or soci- 
eties. Within two years two hundred and fifty cities in 
the United States have opened playgrounds for the first 
time. In two hundred other cities there is a strong 
movement for their establishment. 

Maintaining Playgrounds. — In large cities there are 
many agencies maintaining playgrounds, including the 
park department, the board of education, settlement 
houses, and various associations. 



Playground Census 


Number of 


City 


Population 


Playgrounds 


New York 


4,766,883 


261 


Chicago 


2,185,283 


29 


Philadelphia 


1,549,008 


73 


St. Louis 


687,029 


n 


Boston 


670,585 


77 


Cleveland 


560,663 


15 


Baltimore 


558,485 


5o 


Buffalo 


423,715 


8 


Cincinnati 


364,463 


12 


San Francisco 


416,912 


5 


Pittsburgh 


533,905 


28 


Detroit 


465,766 


11 


Washington, D.C. 


331,069 


32 


Los Angeles 


319,198 


9 



THE PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 



153 



Where City Children Play. — Besides the city streets, 
the city Squares or triangles offer a small area for jump- 
ing rope, playing marbles, and such games as require 
only a small amount of space. City parks may become 
the ideal places for children to play, when they are 
fitted up, like those in Chicago, as playgrounds and 




A Playground in Chicago 



athletic fields. Although the backyards of tenement 
houses are often small and untidy in appearance, they 
serve many children as spaces for play. In some cities 
the backyards of several neighboring houses are made 
into a common playground for the children living in 
those houses. Vacant lots are often used by the larger 
boys for base ball and foot ball, and so are hardly safe 
places for the little children. 



154 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



School-yards, — - School-yards were formerly closed to 
children after school hours. In some cities the yards 
are now fitted with swings, parallel bars, and other 
apparatus. They are open after school, on Saturdays, 
holidays, and daily during the summer vacation. Phila- 




A Playground on the Roof 



delphia has fifty-six playgrounds in school-yards and 
Boston has fifty-four. 

Roofs of School Houses. — Where school houses have 
no yards, the roofs may be fitted up for basket-ball or 
for other recreation. In New York City, where land is 
very valuable, the roofs of eleven public schools are used 
as playgrounds. They are thrown open every evening, 
except Sunday, from 7.30 to 10 p.m. The boys have 
active games and gymnastics, and the girls dance to the 



THE PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 155 

music of brass-bands. The average nightly attendance 
at each of these roof playgrounds is about two thousand, 
including many adults. 

Playgrounds. — Well-equipped playgrounds have been 
established in city parks and squares. In a thickly 
settled district the entire park may be given up to a 
playground as in the McKinley Park in Chicago. More 
often the playground is an area set apart for the children 
in a large park, as the playgrounds in the De Witt 
Clinton and the Hamilton Fish Parks in New York, and 
in the Charlesbank in Boston. 

The Equipment. — A playground is often divided 
into the athletic field for boys and men, and the play- 
ground proper for girls and the smaller children. The 
boys' playground often contains an outdoor gymnasium, 
a running track, basket-ball courts, giant stride, slides, 
and space for games. The girls' playground may con- 
tain large swings, small swings, sand-boxes, volley-ball 
court, seesaws, slides, teeter ladders, and space for games. 
Shelters are usually provided, and some planting of trees 
and shrubs makes the surroundings more attractive. 
A shallow pool for wading and a drinking fountain are 
two popular attractions. 

Notable Playgrounds. — The most notable single pro- 
vision for playgrounds ever made by any American city 
was recently provided by the South Park Commission 
of Chicago. Fourteen recreation centers were estab- 
lished in as many parks on the south side of Chicago. 
Each center includes a club house, an athletic field, a 
playground, a wading pool, a swimming pool, a bath- 



156 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

house, and outdoor and indoor gymnasiums. Each club- 
house has an assembly hall for free social gatherings, 
smaller rooms for club meetings, and reading rooms. 
The restaurants furnish substantial food at the popular 
price of five cents a dish. The average cost of main- 
taining each center is $2500 to $3000. These centers 
are helping to solve the problem of Chicago by making 
playgrounds more accessible. One of the most impor- 
tant features is the practice of flooding the playgrounds 
in winter. In Chicago as many as two hundred skating 
rinks are available by flooding and lighting vacant lots. 

Establishment by Law. — Playgrounds have been 
maintained in Massachusetts since 1872. The public 
have become accustomed to seeing them and reading 
about them. They have learned their value by actual 
experience. In 1908, Massachusetts, as a state, made 
a most noteworthy advance in the cause of playgrounds. 
A law was passed that every city or town in the state 
having a population of ten thousand "accepting the 
provisions of this act shall . . . provide and maintain 
at least one public playground . . . for the recreation 
and physical education of the minors of such city or 
town." Since that time much work has been done in 
educating the people through public meetings, pam- 
phlets, newspapers, and local clubs. As a result, many 
cities and towns have accepted the provisions of the 
playground act. 

Public Baths. — Public baths are both a protection 
of the public health and a popular recreation. Many 
baths are open the year round, and are located in the 



THE PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS 



157 



same building as gymnasiums or swimming pools. 
Probably the most extensive system of baths in the 
United States is in Boston. It is said that the L Street 
bath was the first free municipal bath of any kind 
established in the United States, and it is still the most 
popular. During 1910, in Boston, there were over 









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A Wading Pool 



thirty-six thousand regular patrons of the all-the-year 
municipal baths. 

Recreation Piers. — Those American cities that are 
located on the ocean or on a great lake have hardly 
begun to realize the possibilities of recreation piers for 
fresh air and pleasure. Usually seats are provided 
where men and women may read, rest, and talk. There 
is usually enough space for the children to play quiet 
games. New York City has nine public piers located 



158 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

on the North and East Rivers. Even the second story 
of a pier may be utilized while business is being con- 
ducted below. Philadelphia has developed her recrea- 
tion piers at the foot of Chestnut and Race Streets. In 
Chicago, the sanitariums in Lincoln Park and Jackson 
Park give an opportunity to enjoy the breeze that is 
seldom lacking on the lake shore. The large pier in 
Jackson Park where fishing is allowed is enjoyed by 
thousands throughout the summer. 

Summary. — i. The real value of a park depends upon its size, loca- 
tion, and the way in which it meets the needs of the neighborhood. 

2. Chicago, New York, Philadelphia, and Boston are well-supplied 
with parks. 

3. Parks, boulevards, and sometimes city squares form a park system. 

4. Playgrounds may be located in parks and squares, in yards of 
schools and dwelling houses, or on the roofs of buildings. 

5. The Chicago recreation centers are the most noteworthy play- 
grounds in America. 

6. In Massachusetts, the playground act sets the example for other 
states in establishing playgrounds. 

Questions. — 1. What city squares do you know? What do they 
contain ? 

2. What large park is nearest your home ? What makes it beau- 
tiful ? How often do you visit it ? 

3. Can you find a map or plan of the park system of the nearest 
large city? 

4. Have you any pictures of famous parks in other cities? Can 
you find some? 

5. What have you done or seen other children do on the play- 
ground ? What do you like to do best ? 

6. How many playgrounds are there in the city or town where you 
live ? Who maintains them ? 



XIV. THE CITY FOOD SUPPLY 

Plain food is quite enough for me. — Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

The Source of Supply. — The United States draws 
part of its supply of food from many foreign countries. 
Great ocean steamers laden with food products enter 
our ports. Some bring tea, coffee, dates, and figs from 
the far East. Some are laden with sugar, molasses, 
bananas, rice, cocoa, and coffee from the South. Still 
others bear cheese, olive oil, olives, barley, macaroni, 
and lemons from European countries. 

Food Produced in the United States. — A large 
amount of the food used in the United States is grown 
or manufactured in this country. Most of the meat 
and meat products, such as canned and dried meat, 
are raised and prepared in the central and southwestern 
states. The value of the products of the slaughtering 
and meat packing industries in the United States 
amounts to over eight hundred million dollars a year. 

The Fish Supply. — Fish is caught on the Atlantic 
and Pacific coasts and on the Great Lakes. Fresh fish 
is now sent by refrigeration long distances to inland 
cities. Fish is also prepared by drying, pickling, smok- 
ing, and canning, and sent to every village of the country. 

Cereals. — The cereals, including corn, oats, wheat, 
barley, buckwheat, and rye are very important foods. 
They are grown chiefly in the central and north-central 
regions of the United States. 

iS9 



160 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Vegetables. — Many of the fresh vegetables sold in a 
large city are raised in market gardens within ten or 
fifteen miles of the city. The raising of winter vegetables 
may form the chief industry of a region. Potatoes from 
Maine, onions from Bridgeport, and cranberries from 
Cape Cod are known all over the country. Much of 
the early supply of spring vegetables, as asparagus and 
kale, is shipped from the southern states. Many deli- 
cacies, like strawberries, arrive from Florida while the 
snow is still on the ground in the North. 

Where the Fruit is Raised. — Fruit is raised in many 
sections of the United States. The greatest fruit 
states, however, are on the Pacific coast and in the 
middle west. California raises twenty-one per cent of 
the entire fruit crop of the United States. 

Where the Nuts Grow. — Cultivating nuts is much 
less general than raising fruits. The states raising 
the most valuable nut crops are California, Pennsyl- 
vania, Texas, New York, and Louisiana. Peanuts are 
probably the best known and most universally used. 
They are not true nuts, but pods, and grow underground 
on bushes about one foot high. The annual crop is 
worth ten and one half millions of dollars, and one half 
of it is produced in Virginia and North Carolina. 

Prepared Food. — A large amount of food in the 
market is prepared so that it will keep a long time. 
Much of it is put up in glass bottles, tin cans, wooden 
boxes, or paper packages. The chief object is to keep 
the food from decaying. The covering also keeps the 
food clean, and makes handling and selling much easier. 



THE CITY FOOD SUPPLY 161 

The foods most usually prepared in this way are meat 
products, vegetables, fruits, and fish. Foods are pre- 
pared in many ways. Drying, salting, pickling, 
smoking, and sterilizing will preserve food. We little 
realize what quantities of prepared food are sold, and 
that the amount is still increasing. Something like one 




A California Orange Grove 

hundred million cans of corn, about the same number of 
cans of peas, and one hundred and fifty million cans of 
tomatoes alone are packed yearly in the United States. 
Fresh Food. — There are many kinds of food that 
must be kept fresh and delivered in perfect condition. 
Immense amounts of meat and fish are handled daily. 
Many winter vegetables may be stored in various ways 
until needed, and are then delivered fresh. Apples, 
oranges, lemons, dates, prunes, and bananas are kept 



162 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

fresh, and delivered nearly every month of the year to 
every city in the land. 

Transportation. — Many of our foods have traveled 
halfway or entirely across the continent. The refriger- 
ator car has made this possible. Provision must be made 
for hot as well as cold weather. In going from the South 
to the North, arrangements must be made for venti- 
lating and then closing the cars. Sometimes cars are 
warmed by steam, by stoves, by a lining of heavy 
paper, or by double walls to maintain the tempera- 
ture. Many prepared and fresh foods must not be 
allowed to freeze. Many kinds of fresh food are wilted 
or made soft and become unsalable if frozen. Meat 
and fish, however, are frozen for keeping indefinitely. 

Cold Storage. — It is impossible to deliver all perish- 
able food immediately on its arrival in a city. So there 
are large cold storage buildings to hold the surplus. 
These are owned by wholesale dealers, by private 
parties, and by the large markets. They are located 
near the wharves and railroad-terminals where the 
freight arrives. These buildings are easily recognized, 
for they are large, high, brick structures with only a few 
small windows and doors. Within they are divided 
into rooms for the storage of different kinds of food. 
Ammonia instead of ice is used for keeping the building 
cold. We all know that when a few drops of ammonia 
evaporate from the hand the evaporation makes the 
hand cold. So in the cold storage plants, the cold 
obtained from evaporating ammonia is communicated 
to a strong salt solution, and thence to air which cir- 



THE CITY FOOD SUPPLY 



163 



culates through the chambers. Part of the building is 
kept a few degrees below freezing, about twenty degrees 
Fahrenheit, and part of the building a few degrees above 
freezing, about forty degrees, for other kinds of food. 




A Market Scene 



Dangers of Cold Storage. — No one can question 
the advantage of cold storage to the dealer and finally 
to the buyer. It is the house refrigerator on a large 
scale. Experience has taught, however, that there are 
also grave dangers connected with the business. Some- 
times food is kept too long in storage, and changes take 
place in it that may be injurious to health. People are 



1 64 HEALTH IX HOME AND TOWN 

beginning to study the effect of extreme cold upon food. 
Some authorities recommend that each article shall be 
marked with the date of admission to cold storage, and 
be allowed to remain not longer than one year. Such a 
practice would allow food to be stored from one season 
to another, while it would prevent storing food year 
after year until a high price could be realized. 

Cleanliness and Foods. — It is impossible to empha- 
size too much the necessity for keeping food clean, 
either in the home or before it reaches the home. Strict 
and detailed laws have been passed by the United States 
Government to protect meat of all kinds while it is being 
dressed. Much depends upon every one of us in aiding 
to form that public opinion which helps to make the 
laws. We can buy only from the clean grocery, provi- 
sion store, creamery, and bakery. We can refrain from 
buying all food that is exposed to the dust of the street. 
All such food should be covered. We can wash our 
milk jars perfectly clean. The decaying of all food is 
caused by plants too small to be seen by the unaided 
eye. All these as well as disease germs can only be kept 
out of food by the greatest care. 

Preservatives in Food, — Some foods are kept from 
spoiling by adding certain chemical substances such as 
boric acid and borax. This saves time and expense and 
preserves the shape and appearance of the fruit, which 
might be injured with long cooking. Such substances 
are considered by many to be injurious to health even 
when taken in small quantities. In many states, the 
law insists that such substances shall be named on the 



THE CITY FOOD SUPPLY 165 

label, and the buyer can do as he thinks best about 
buying the article. 

Adulterated Food. — Food may be adulterated in 
many ways. Adulteration usually means mixing with 
cheaper substances. The pure food law distinctly de- 
fines many kinds of adulteration. A food is adulter- 
ated when any substance is added to it to affect its 
strength or to make it injurious. Cocoa sometimes 
contains starch, which weakens its strength. Food is 
adulterated when it has been colored, coated, or stained 
so as to conceal its poor quality. Jelly and ketchup 
are often colored because they sell better when they 
have a high color. Certain chemicals, called preserva- 
tives, are sometimes added to canned goods to keep 
them fresh. Such foods are adulterated. 

Misbranded Food. — Food is sold in the market by 
names or brands which appear on the labels. Often 
some color or characteristic of the food gives it its name. 
A description of the food may. also appear on the label. 
Food is misbranded when the label incorrectly describes 
it. Misbranded food may be perfectly wholesome, but 
may mislead and cheat the buyer. Sometimes starch 
is added to sausage to increase the weight. Such an 
article might be considered adulterated, because it 
deceives the buyer by leading him to think he has 
bought more meat than he really has. As the article 
is wholesome, if it were properly labeled it would 
doubtless prove an acceptable food. 

The Pure Food and Drugs Act. — For more than one 
hundred years some of the states have been trying to 



166 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

regulate the sale of unwholesome food. On June 30, 
1906, Congress passed an act known as the Food and 
Drugs Act. This act prohibits the manufacture, sale, 
or transportation of adulterated or misbranded foods 
and drugs. The penalty for violating the law is fine, 
imprisonment, or both. 

Limitations of the Federal Law. — This Food and 
Drugs Act passed by Congress is a federal law, and ap- 
plies only to certain localities not under state control. 
It is in force in the District of Columbia and in all ter- 
ritories. The law also applies to food shipped from one 
state to another, or to or from any foreign country in 
unbroken packages. It is a mistake to think that this 
law applies to all foods throughout the United States. 
It has accomplished much in setting a good example 
to the entire country. 

The Federal Law. — A law is practically useless 
unless money and the means of enforcing it are pro- 
vided. By the act, the Secretary of the Treasury, the 
Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of Com- 
merce and Labor were appointed to make and publish 
rules and regulations to be followed in carrying out 
the law. They made forty regulations on the methods 
of collecting samples, the standards for drugs, the sub- 
stances mixed with foods, and many other topics. 

The Enforcement of the Law. — There are seven chief 
steps necessary in the enforcement of the law with any 
article of food. First, collectors purchase in any store 
samples of a food that is under suspicion. Second, part 
of the sample is analyzed by the Bureau of Chemistry. 



THE CITY FOOD SUPPLY 167 

Third, if the food is found adulterated or misbranded, 
notice is sent to the people who sold the food or who 
guaranteed the goods. Fourth, a hearing is granted 
the maker or dealer before the Secretary of Agriculture. 
Fifth, if the food is still declared adulterated or mis- 
branded, the Attorney- General begins proceedings in 
court. Sixth, a judgment is obtained in court and the 
penalty of fine or imprisonment is declared. Seventh, 
the penalty is enforced. 

A Guaranty under the Law. — Many persons think 
that when a food is guaranteed under the pure food law, 
the United States Government guarantees that the food 
is pure. This is a mistake. The party who manufac- 
tures, prepares, or sells the food guarantees its purity to 
the federal Government. The Department of Agricul- 
ture merely registers the guaranty and gives the food a 
number for convenience in reference. A guaranty is a 
promise given by the manufacturer to the Government. 

The Label. — The label on a package of food must 
give certain information in a definite order, similar to 
this illustration: 



1. Name of product. 

2. Contents, additions, etc. 

3. Name of manufacturer, if given. 

4. Place of manufacture, if given. 



KETCHUP 
ARTIFICIALLY COLORED 

(Descriptive matter) 



Blank & Co., 
Springfield, Mass. 



(Descriptive matter if desired) 



168 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Pure Food Laboratories. — The federal Government 
has established stations in many of the large cities to 
enforce its food law. There are twenty-one stations at 
New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Boston, 
Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Detroit, Cincinnati, San Francisco, 
and other large cities. In each place the work of col- 
lecting samples of food and analyzing them goes on in 
the same way as at Washington. 

State Food Laws. — Since June, 1906, many states 
have passed and enforced pure food laws modeled after 
the federal law. These may forbid the sale of adulter- 
ated foods and drugs, and of adulterated, diseased, or 
skimmed milk. They often regulate the sale of oleo- 
margarine, imitation cheese, renovated butter, lard, 
vinegar, and candy containing alcohol and arsenic. 
They do much good also in inspecting slaughter- 
houses, dairies, and bakeries. The State Board of 
Health has charge of all inspections, examinations of 
foods, and other health matters. 

City Laws. — When a state is slow in passing food 
laws the cities within it may make regulations to meet 
their own conditions. Health matters are then in charge 
of a city board of health or health commission. 

Amount of Milk used. — The amount of milk and 
cream produced by farmers for distribution yearly is 
over 740,000,000 gallons. This does not include the still 
larger amount used for butter, cheese, and condensed 
milk. The average quantity of milk purchased by the 
urban population is twenty-three gallons a year for each 
person. 



THE CITY FOOD SUPPLY 



169 



The Dairy Industry. — Dairying is so widely practised 
here that the United States is regarded as the leading 
dairy country of the world. In 1908 the total value 
of all dairy cows was over seven hundred million dollars. 



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A Modern Dairy 
Note the cleanliness of the barn, the cows, and the men 

In the northern and eastern sections of the United 
States, dairying is carried on very extensively. In large 
parts of these sections it is the chief occupation of the 
farmers. The chief dairy states are New York, Iowa, 
Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Ohio. 

The General Use of Milk. — Milk is one of the most 
common articles of food. Next to bread it is prob- 
ably more commonly used than any other food. It 
forms a large part of the food of all children until they 



170 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

are five years of age. In cities nearly every family 
receives a daily supply of milk or cream. In the north- 
ern states, each individual on the average uses two 
thirds of a pint daily, while in the southern states 
scarcely one half of this is used. 

The Need of Clean Milk. — Milk is usually taken 
raw, so if it contains disease germs, they are not 
killed by the heat of cooking. Germs increase very 
rapidly unless the milk is kept near ice. Many out- 
breaks of disease have been traced to impure milk. 
Among the most common diseases carried in this way 
are typhoid fever, diphtheria, and scarlatina. Diseased 
milk may be one of the common means of spreading 
consumption or tuberculosis. The health of many 
infants depends largely upon the cleanliness of the milk 
supply. Unwholesome milk causes much of the illness 
which often proves fatal among very young children. 

How Milk is Adulterated. — There are several com- 
mon ways of adulterating milk. The removal of cream 
by skimming, the addition of water, and the addition 
of substances to thicken the milk are the most common. 
Sometimes coloring matter and preservatives are also 
added. The chief danger of using thinned milk is that 
children fed upon it will not obtain the proper amount 
of food. The two great perils of milk are dirt and 
disease germs. Of the two, the germs are the more 
dangerous, because they may do greater harm, and 
because it is more difficult to detect them. 

The Milk Supply of New York City. — The most 
noticeable feature is the magnitude of the industry. 



THE CITY FOOD SUPPLY 171 

About one million and a half quarts daily are required. 
Most of this is shipped in large forty-quart cans. More 
than three quarters of the supply arrives by railroad. 
The farmers haul the milk to stations called creameries 
located along the railroad. Here the milk is mixed, 
cooled, and put into cans or bottles. Then it is sent on 
milk-trains to New York City, where each dealer carts 

O 



© o 
op 
o 

o 



° °^d ;.° s ftp 8 .o'C-A -S9>- ° ° 

Milk Seen through a Microscope 
A, Clean milk, showing no germs. B, Dirty milk, containing many germs 

his own supply to his place of business. Then the 
bottles and cans are transferred to the retail wagons, 
and delivered to the customers. As much as ninety per 
cent of the business is in the hands of about one 
hundred and twenty-five large dealers who own the 
stations both in the country and the city. 

Grades of Milk. — There are four grades of milk sold 
in the large cities. Certified milk is the purest and is 
offered only in limited quantities. This milk is pro- 
duced by cows properly fed, watered, housed, cleaned, 
and kept free from tuberculosis and other diseases. Such 



172 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

milk is frequently analyzed, and may be certified by a 
board of health. Inspected milk is clean raw milk from 
healthy cows, but not so pure as certified milk. Pas- 
teurized milk is sold in a limited quantity in nearly every 
large city. Dairies not able to produce certified or 
inspected milk may pasteurize their milk. Such milk 
is heated to a temperature of one hundred and fifty 
degrees Fahrenheit for twenty minutes, and then cooled. 
This milk is not as wholesome as certified milk. Most 
of the milk sold in cities is, however, raw market milk 
produced under a great variety of conditions. 

Movement for Pure Milk. — Since 1892 there have 
been vigorous and numerous efforts made by both 
private individuals and health officers to obtain a pure 
and safe supply of milk. There have been four different 
lines of work. 

Milk Laws. — Most of the states and many of the 
large cities and towns have laws or ordinances for the 
improvement of milk. They relate to such subjects 
as the condition of the cows, the stables, the milk-house, 
the water-supply, milking and handling milk, and adul- 
terating and selling milk. It is the duty of the board 
of health to enforce these laws, and fines or imprison- 
ment are imposed for their violation. Milk in many 
cities must come up to a certain quality or standard 
which is set by law. 

The Inspection of Milk. — To enforce the laws, 
inspectors are appointed to investigate the actual con- 
ditions on the farms. They collect samples of milk 
which are examined or analyzed at headquarters. The 



THE CITY FOOD SUPPLY 173 

inspectors note and report the condition of the farm, 
the buildings, the cows, the milk, and the helpers 
at the farm. The publication of the result of these 
inspections does much to improve conditions. There is 
some kind of supervision of milk in all cities having a 
population of 50,000. 

Milk Commissions. — In some cities bodies of re- 
liable men, called commissions, have been organized 
to improve the milk supply. They employ inspectors 
who examine the dairies, the cows, and the milk. Like 
boards of health, they certify clean safe milk. Dairy- 
men are eager to obtain their certificate, since it is good 
advertising, and attracts new customers. 

Pure Milk Stations. — The lives of so many infants 
have been sacrificed through diseased milk that a special 
effort is being made to furnish them with clean milk. 
In thickly populated sections stations are maintained 
where pure milk is sold at cost or less In 1908 there 
were twenty-one cities in the United States which had 
from one to twenty-eight such stations. A nurse is 
usually in charge who gives advice and sometimes 
printed directions to the mother on the care of her 
child. The work done at Rochester, New York, has 
become famous. The Board of Health maintained a 
central farm for the production of pure milk, and four 
delivery stations in the city. It has a record for eight 
years of saving the lives of one hundred children each 
summer at a cost of one thousand dollars. 

Recent Improvements. — Many promising results 
have been obtained from the fight for pure milk. Thr 



i74 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

general public is more intelligent about the milk ques- 
tion. Dairymen are more careful in selecting fine 
healthy cows. Cows are better fed and housed than 
formerly. There has also been a marked improvement 
in milking and in the care of the milk. The newer 
methods of bottling, transporting, and delivering make 
it possible for the milk to reach the home in a much 
cleaner condition. At the Paris exposition of 1900 there 
was an exhibition of dairy products under the care of 
the United States Department of Agriculture. This 
included fresh milk and cream shipped in hot weather 
from Illinois, New Jersey, and New York. Coming 
from three to four thousand miles the cream and milk 
were perfectly sweet a fortnight after being bottled. 
Cleanliness and cold were the only methods used in so 
wonderfully preserving this milk. 

Meat Inspection. — One of the greatest aids in the 
cause of pure food is the federal meat inspection, estab- 
lished in 1892. The object of this inspection is to 
obtain a meat supply that is clean, wholesome, and 
absolutely free from disease. 

The Importance of a Pure Meat Supply. — A pure 
meat supply is necessary for two reasons, namely: to 
meet the demands of the American people, and to meet 
the requirements set by foreign countries. The Ameri- 
can people consume large quantities of fresh meat. It 
has been found that each person in America uses, 
annually, about one hundred and nineteen pounds of 
meat. This is more than is used in any other country 
except Australia. 



THE CITY FOOD SUPPLY 



i75 



Meat Inspectors. — The federal Government alone 
has a force of about fifteen hundred trained men sta- 
tioned in the large meat-packing houses in this country. 
There are also state and city inspectors. An inspector 
examines each animal be- 
fore and again after kill- 
ing. He also watches 
every stage in the dress- 
ing of the meat. If in 
good condition the meat 
is marked in several 
places with the words, 
"U. S. Inspected and 
Passed/' with a number. 

What the Purple 
Stamp Means. — When 
buying meat, the purple 
stamp may often be 
seen. It is elliptical in 
shape and about two 
inches in diameter like 
the accompanying illus- 
tration. Meat bearing 
this stamp has been care- 
fully inspected and is 
free from disease. At the time of inspection it was 
clean and wholesome and perfectly fit for food. 




Meat, showing Inspector's Mark 



Summary. — 1. The best way to keep food fresh is by means of 
cleanliness and cold. 



1 76 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

2. Refrigerator cars and cold storage plants play an important 
part in the preservation of foods. 

3. The Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906 has accomplished much 
in suppressing unwholesome food, and in setting a good example to the 
entire country. 

4. A guaranty under the law is a statement given to the govern- 
ment by the manufacturer that the food is neither adulterated nor 
misbranded. 

5. Milk is an important, nutritious, easily digested, popular, and 
inexpensive food. 

6. A safe milk supply can only be obtained by the help of the 
public in supporting health laws and officers. 

Questions. — 1. What foods are produced in the United States? 
Where? 

2. How may foods be adulterated? 

3. What does a label on a food include? Can you bring to school 
some labels from canned goods? 

4. How are the pure food laws enforced? 

5. What can you find out about the milk supply of the city or 
town where you live ? Are the farms inspected ? 

6. Why is clean milk necessary? 



XV. THE CITY WATER AND ICE 

My name is Water: I have sped 

Through strange, dark ways, untried before, 
By pure desire of friendship led, 

Cochituate's ambassador; 
He sends forth royal gifts by me: 
Long life, health, peace, and purity. 



For countless services I'm fit, 

Of use, of pleasure, and of gain, 
But lightly from all bonds I flit, 

Nor lose my mirth, nor feel a stain; 
From mill and wash-tub I escape, 
And take in heaven my proper shape. 

James Russell Lowell. 

City Water. — In American cities water has always 
been plentiful. We turn a faucet, and help ourselves 
without a thought about the kind of water we are drink- 
ing. Only when it smells " fishy " or when we find dirt 
in the bottom of the glass, do we question the purity. 

Safe Water-Supply. — It is easy to state what is 

necessary and desirable for a safe drinking water. The 

first and most important requirement is that the water 

shall be free from disease-carriers or germs. If the germs 

of typhoid fever or cholera are in the water, any one 

drinking it is in danger of having these diseases. Such 

water is entirely unfit for drinking. Second, drinking 

water should be clear. We never like to see iron-rust, 

sand, or dirt in water when we hold a glass of it up to 

the light. Third, drinking water should be colorless. 

177 



178 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Some water has a reddish hue due to iron, and some 
is brownish from grass, leaves, and other vegetable 
matter standing in it. Fourth, drinking water should 
have neither odor nor taste. Sometimes an impure sub- 
stance, or small plants growing in the water, will give 
a strong odor and " fishy" or other unpleasant taste. 
Such water should be examined and the trouble remedied. 
Fifth, it is desirable that drinking water be cool. Every 
one knows that warm water is unpalatable. When the 
temperature of water is above sixty degrees Fahrenheit, 
people do not like to drink it without cooling. 

Pure or Purified Water. — A sufficient supply of 
pure drinking water is a valuable possession for any 
city. Sometimes, however, such a supply is not within 
the reach of a large city. Then the best water that is 
available must be purified and made fit for use even if 
it costs millions of dollars. 

Value of Pure Drinking Water. — When the water- 
supply is impure it causes much sickness and many 
deaths. Typhoid fever is one disease which is due 
largely to polluted water, although it may be spread in 
other ways. The cost of sickness due to impure water 
may be roughly reckoned by calculating the expense 
from typhoid fever. It has been estimated that the 
purified water is worth to the city of Albany, New 
York, $475,000 a year more than the polluted river 
water formerly used. 

Amount of Water Needed. — Probably we little real- 
ize how much water is required for a city. One hun- 
dred gallons a day is usually allowed for each person. 



THE CITY WATER AND ICE 179 

This is not only the water used for drinking but for 
washing, cleaning, bathing, fires, and for all other pur- 
poses. A large amount of water also is wasted by 
leaks in the pipes and by careless persons. The water 
used for drinking and cooking is a very small part, 
perhaps one per cent, of all that is used. Still it would 
never be safe to have pure water only for drinking, and 
to use impure water for other purposes. Many persons 
would be careless and drink the polluted water, and 
might become ill from it. So a very large amount of 
good water must be supplied. The amount of water that 
is used in some of the large cities in the United States 
is shown in the following table : 







Gallons 


Place 


Year 


per person 
daily 


Pittsburgh 


I905 


250 


Buffalo 


1900 


233 


Philadelphia 


I905 


227 


Washington 


1906 


218 


Chicago 


1900 


190 


Detroit 


I905 


190 


Cleveland 


I905 


137 


New York 


1902 


129 


Boston 


1909 


123 


Newark 


1900 


94 


Milwaukee 


I905 


91 


Minneapolis 


1904 


82 


Worcester 


1900 


70 


Providence 


I905 


68 



Rivers as Water-Supplies. — Many cities of the 
United States take their supply of water from the 
large rivers near which they are situated. This is true 



180 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

of Philadelphia, Washington, St. Louis, Pittsburgh, 
New Orleans, Louisville, Minneapolis, Providence, 
Indianapolis, Kansas City, Mo., Toledo, Alleghany, 
Paterson, St. Joseph, Omaha, and many other smaller 
places. 

Purity of River Water. — From general observation 
we know that the water of many rivers is far from being 



it - ._ ^^m>, mm 



P ! 



•KM 3 * 






jSftS^Sa"*^: 




Aeration of Missouri River Water 
In passing from one settling basin to another at Omaha, Neb. 

fit to drink. Refuse of all kinds finds its way finally 
into a river. The waste from manufacturing plants 
and sewage are the most dangerous, and often kill fish 
in the river in the vicinity of the works. Sewage is the 
most dangerous of all, as it often carries the germs of 
disease. So much sickness and death have resulted 
from drinking water taken directly from rivers, that 
many cities purify such water before distributing it. 

Filtering the Water-Supply. — The method of purify- 
ing drinking water most commonly in use is filtering. 



THE CITY WATER AND ICE 



181 



A supply of muddy water may be 
properly filtered and thus made 
clear and colorless. Consequently 
many cities have built large water- 
works and filter through sand all 
the water used. Millions of dollars 
have been spent in building the 
works, and millions more are re- 
quired each year for the running 
expenses. Among the large cities 
that filter their drinking water 
are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, New 
Orleans, Washington, Louisville, 
Providence, Kansas City, Toledo, 
and many others. 

Filtering Water. — Albany, New 
York, filters its drinking water 
which it takes from the Hudson 
River. The water-works consist of 
a settling basin, sand-filters, pure 
water-pipe or conduit, pumping- 
station, reservoir, and distributing 
pipes or mains. The illustration 
gives a diagram of the different 
parts. 

The Settling Basin.— When filled 
with water the settling basin looks 
like a large pond or small lake. It 
is a large rectangular box nine feet 
deep, has an area of five acres, and 





182 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

is water-tight. It is located along the Hudson River, 
and separated from it by only a narrow strip of land. 
The water is taken from the river, and enters the basin 
at eleven different inlets. These inlets are above the 
surface of the water, so that the water falls down in a 
fountain, and is rilled with air, or aerated. A glass o.f 




Settling Basin and Pumping- Station, Albany, N. Y. 

water may be aerated by turning it from one glass to 
another. This will often drive off bad odors and tastes. 
In the settling basin, most of the sand and dirt settles 
out of the water to the bottom of the basin, which has to 
be cleaned occasionally. Eleven outlets drain the water 
out of the settling basin into one of the eight niters. 

The Filters. — All of the filters together cover a larger 
area than the settling basin. Each filter is a basin eleven 
feet deep, built of masonry and brick, with a concrete 
roof overlaid with soil and grass. The following illustra- 
tion represents the interior of a filter ready for use, show- 
ing the pillars which support the roof. The niters are 



THE CITY WATER AND ICE 



183 



filled, and the water is passed slowly through sand and 
gravel. Water flows from the settling basin over the 
filter, and stands four feet deep while being filtered. 
Then it slowly passes down through four feet of sand 
and one foot of gravel. Then the pure water is collected 
underneath by pipes, and carried to a reservoir. The 
diagram on the next page shows a section through 




w»ii? 



Interior of Filter 

a filter. The upper layer of sand filters out most of 
the coarse particles, so that the filters have to be kept 
clean. About once a month the upper inch of sand 
is scraped off, and about once a year the rest of the 
sand is taken out, washed, and replaced. 

The Pure Water. — The filtered water is stored in the 
reservoir until it is pumped to the large reservoir in the 
city, whither it goes through the large water-mains in 
the streets to all the buildings. 



184 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 







Results of Filtering Water. — Filtering a water-sup- 
ply improves it greatly. Dark colored water will come 
from the filters clear and sparkling. A large number of 
the germs are also removed. Filtering drinking water 
saves many* lives, especially from typhoid fever and diar- 
rhceal diseases. It saves the lives of many children. In 

a city 250 persons out of 
every 100,000 inhabitants 
may die of typhoid fever. 
By filtering the water-sup- 
ply, the deaths from this 
disease may be reduced to 
five out of every 100,000. 
A careful and scientific 
supervision of the filters is 
necessary for the surest 
results. Even with the 
greatest care, some disease 
germs may be carried 
through the filters, and remain in the drinking water. 
As a further safeguard the source of the water should 
be protected from all dangerous pollution, even though 
the water may be filtered. When there is an epidemic 
of some contagious disease, the water should be boiled 
before drinking it. Boil even the filtered water when 
there is any possibility of its spreading disease. 

Sterilizing Water. — It is a very difficult matter to 
render a water-supply absolutely free from germs. Fil- 
tering it has accomplished great results. Sterilizing it 
by electricity promises to remove all or nearly all of 



Section through a Filter 

A, Concrete sides ; B, Base; C, Roof; D, Pil- 
lar supporting roof ; E, Air space ; F, Water 
to be filtered ; G, Sand ; H, Gravel ; /, 
Conduit for pure water 



THE CITY WATER AND ICE 185 

the germs. This process is simple and inexpensive to 
install and to run. All cities may yet have a perfectly 
safe supply of drinking water. 

Drinking Water from Wells. — Water from wells and 
springs is pure and cool, and especially adapted for drink- 
ing. It has already been filtered, naturally, through the 
soil. Except for contamination from disease germs in 




Common Sources of Contamination to Wells 

its course through the soil, it has been thoroughly puri- 
fied. In the rural districts care should be taken that the 
conditions are not such as are shown in the above illus- 
tration. Here the drainage from the barn and outbuild- 
ings finds its way down into the water which is pumped 
up for use on the place. Well water in a city may be 
obtained from private wells, or from driven wells that 
form a part of the city water-supply. City wells are a 
very questionable source of drinking water, since they 



186 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

are often polluted from leaking drains. In Indianapolis 
nearly half the population takes its water-supply from 
private wells. In Richmond and in Milwaukee there 
are many thousand city wells most of which are polluted. 
The Boards of Health of these cities are making a strong 
effort to abolish these wells. 

The Water of Brooklyn. — The Brooklyn water- works 
draws sixty- two per cent of its water, or 78,000,000 
gallons daily, from wells driven in coarse sand and 
gravel. There are twenty-four pumping stations in 
different sections of the city, each one pumping on the 
average about 3,000,000 gallons of water daily. This 
is one of the largest supplies of water obtained from wells 
in this country, although there are several • smaller 
plants on Long Island and in New Jersey. 

Spring Water. — Clear, pure, spring water is our 
ideal of drinking water. The bottled spring water 
sold in cities, however, may not fill the requirements. 
Boards of health are beginning to recognize a possi- 
ble danger from this source. Some cities require a 
license for dealers engaged in selling such water. Other 
cities forbid the use of the bottles for any other pur- 
pose, and examine both the water sold and the source 
of the supply. 

Drinking Water from Lakes or Natural Reservoirs. — 
Many large cities make use of lakes as natural reservoirs. 
The rain that falls on a certain watershed finds its way 
by means of brooks, rivers, and other streams into a 
natural lake. A dam is built across the outlet, turning 
it into a natural reservoir. A large water-pipe or con- 



THE CITY WATER AND ICE 



187 



duit carries the water from the reservoir to the city. 
Great care must be taken that the water is not polluted 
by people living on the shores of the lake, or on the 
area drained into the lake. A city often purchases the 
shores of the lake and as much of the drainage area as 
possible. In this way, many of the large cities in the 




Croton Dam, holding back Water for the Supply of New York 

eastern part of the United States, such as New York, 
Baltimore, Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Newark, and 
others, obtain their supply of water. On the Pacific 
coast, reservoirs are used, but they must be large enough 
to hold a supply for two or three years. 

Croton Water of New York. — Ever since 1842 the 
City of New York has been supplied with water from 
the Croton River. The water-pipe or aqueduct crosses 
the Harlem River on an arched bridge, called High 
Bridge, which is one of the notable features of the city. 



188 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

In 1890 a larger aqueduct carrying 300,000,000 gallons 
of water per day was built. To obtain this amount a 
dam was built across the Croton River, holding back 
the water in times of flood, and forming Croton Lake. 
From time to time, as more water was needed, other 
smaller dams have been built across tributaries 
of the Croton River, forming a series of smaller reser- 
voirs, all of which empty into Croton Lake. This 
system of streams and reservoirs is now complete, as 
it will not be possible to obtain more water from this 
watershed. 

The Catskill Supply. — Still the city of New York 
did not have water enough. It has been necessary to 
go one hundred miles away to the Catskill mountains 
for a supplementary water-supply. The large Ashokan 
Reservoir, holding 120,000,000,000 gallons of water, has 
been built. This is the largest artificial reservoir for 
holding a water-supply in America. It will hold water 
from the Esopus Creek and other areas which will be 
developed as they are needed. 

The Water of Los Angeles. — Los Angeles has one of 
the most remarkable water-works in America. It takes 
its water from the Owens River, which is fed by many 
pure streams in the National Forest Reserve, on the 
mountains of the Sierra range three hundred miles away. 
The Owens River flows into the Owens Lake, which is 
without an outlet and extremely salt. The pure water 
of Owens River is taken twenty-five miles above its 
inlet to the lake, and is carried around the lake in 
a conduit two hundred and twenty-six miles to Los 



THE CITY WATER AND ICE 189 

Angeles. Eighteen miles are tunnel through rock, ten 
miles tunnel through earth, eleven miles are across 
canyon and depression, and the rest is a cement con- 
duit. Five large reservoirs in the system can store 
376,256,000,000 gallons of water. The water is led 
through a mountain and across a desert. This is the 
longest conduit for drinking water in the world. 

The Water-Supply of Boston. — Boston and nine 
neighboring cities and eleven towns located within ten 
miles of the State House form the Metropolitan Water 
District. The area of the watersheds supplying the 
water is two hundred and eleven square miles and is 
situated within fifty miles of Boston. In 1909 nearly 
ninety per cent of the water came from the Wachu- 
sett Reservoir. The contents of all the reservoirs is 
80,823,000,000 gallons, and the daily average supply 
to the eighteen towns and cities in 1909, as measured 
by meters, was 119,119,100 gallons, equal to 123 gallons 
for each person. 

Protection of the Water-Supply. — It is not always 
possible to draw a water-supply from an area that is 
free from all population. It is desirable for the city 
or state to own as much of the watershed as possi- 
ble, and to protect the waters. Several of the towns 
lying near the watershed support at great expense filter- 
beds for the purification of the sewage of the town. 
The Boston Metropolitan Board controls ten thousand 
acres of land, much of which is covered with forests. 
The trees are cared for, moths are destroyed, and fire- 
patrol service is maintained in the spring and fall. 



iqo HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

On the grounds, many notices like the following are 
posted: 

METROPOLITAN WATER WORKS 



WACHUSETT RESERVOIR 



BATHING 
BOATING 

FISHING Without a Permit 
BUILDING FIRES 
HUNTLNG 
TRAPPING 
SNARING 
SMOKING 
On the Premises of the Commonwealth 
And Any Acts Tending to 
POLLUTE THE WATERS 



INJURE THE PROPERTY 

OF THE COMMONWEALTH* 

ARE PROHIBITED 

(Signed) William N. Davenport, 
Secretary Metropolitan Water and « 

Sewage Board 

Need of Ice. — Ice has come to be a necessity 
instead of a luxury. It is used everywhere for the 
preservation of food. In every home and retail store 
meat, fish, milk, butter, and eggs must be kept near 
ice. Lemonade and other fruit juices cooled by ice are 
helpful in withstanding the effects of hot weather. In 
winter, less ice is used in the homes, but a large amount 
is still necessary in hotels, restaurants, and stores. 

Amount Used. — The manufacture or cutting and 
selling of ice is one of the large industries of the United 
States. In the southern, middle, and western states, 
manufactured or artificial ice is largely used, while in 
the northern states natural ice is in more common use. 



THE CITY WATER AND ICE 



191 



There is some artificial ice sold in the North, and some 
natural ice shipped to the South. The Hudson River 
and the State of Maine produce nearly one half of the 
natural ice used in the United States. 



* 








♦ 


if T^ 




/ . I *'-'„ 

/ 


1 
S 






- ; / / i 


/ 


•\- 


• V 



Harvesting Ice 



Source of Ice. — Natural ice is formed and cut on 
rivers, ponds, and lakes. All through the northern 
states, in the rural districts, there are many small 
private ice-houses. On many northern farms, filling 
the ice-houses is as important a part of the winter's 
work as cutting the fuel. Ice for transportation is only 
cut on the large rivers, lakes, and ponds. 

Harvesting Ice. — Sometimes ice thick enough to cut 
does not form until January or February. Thick cakes 
of ice are cleaner, last longer, and are cheaper to har- 



192 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

vest than the same amount of ice in thin cakes. When 
ice is covered with snow, it is first cleaned off with 
scrapers. If there is a layer of snow-ice, that also should 
be removed. After scraping, the ice is marked off into 
large squares the size of the cakes desired. This is done 
with an implement called a marker, which is drawn by a 
horse and somewhat resembles a plow. Several long, 
parallel cuts are made in the ice at one time. Driving 
the marker at right angles to the first direction outlines 
the square blocks. 

Cutting Ice. — A horse and plow are driven over 
the first marks, and the blocks are cut deeper. Still 
the blocks of ice are held together by a thin lower 
layer. The blocks are then gradually broken apart 
by hand, and floated to the shore, where the ice-house 
usually stands. This is a large rectangular building 
resembling a barn, but without windows. There is a 
large door, and in the middle of the roof a wooden 
ventilator. There is also an inclined plane or elevator 
for lifting up the cakes of ice. The walls of the ice- 
house are often made of three compartments. The 
outer one is somewhat open, for the free circulation of 
air, the middle one is filled with sawdust, and the third 
or inner compartment is another air space. 

Storing Ice. — The cakes of ice are raised from the 
shore to the house by horse or steam-power. Then 
they are packed closely together, leaving next to the 
walls a space which is filled with sawdust. 

Distributing Ice. — When needed, ice is shipped by 
boat or rail for any distance and to any country. In a 



THE CITY WATER AND ICE 193 

city ice usually arrives in freight cars at convenient 
stations throughout the city limits. From these points 
the familiar ice-wagons deliver ice to their customers. 

The Purity of Ice. — From the general appearance, 
it would seem as though nothing could be purer than a 
piece of ice. It is colorless, transparent, and without 
odor. Yet we hear about the dangers of using ice. 
Before we tell what these dangers are, we must know 
how ice is formed. 

The Formation of Ice. — When the first really cold 
weather comes we find a very thin coating of ice on the 
brooks, puddles, ponds, lakes, and rivers. As the cold 
increases, the ice grows thicker. But it is important 
to remember that the ice grows thicker on the under 
side. The sticks and leaves and other rubbish found in 
the water are pushed down as the ice forms. If there 
are any disease germs in the water, they are held in 
the ice. During the winter the wind may have blown 
sand, leaves, sticks, and other refuse on the surface of 
the ice. It may be partly covered with snow. All of 
the large particles of dirt in the ice are on top, or in the 
snow-ice, and this should be scraped off before the ice 
is delivered. 

Precautions against Disease Germs. — It is of the 
utmost importance that ice should be cut only on pure, 
clean water. It has been proved that if the water con- 
tains germs of disease, ice cut from that water will also 
contain them. It has been found, also, that these same 
germs gradually die if they are held for a long time in 
ice. So that, while the ice is stored, it is growing purer 



i 9 4 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

all the time. Three conditions that make for safe ice 
are pure water for its formation, the scraping of the 
surface, and storing for months. The first two con- 
ditions exclude a large amount of dirt, and the third 
removes much of the danger from the smaller particles 
and disease germs. A fourth essential for safe ice is 
clean distribution. 

Danger in Distribution. — When we think that ice 
is thrown about in dirty cars, stations, and dusty wagons, 
it would seem that cleaning would be necessary before 
putting it into the refrigerator, where food is kept. 
Washing it with a pailful of clean cold water is more 
effective in removing dirt than merely brushing it with 
a small corn-broom. Frequently the greatest danger 
comes from careless handling. 

Precautions in Using Ice. — It is necessary to wash 
out the refrigerator every time that ice is put into it. 
Care should be taken to remove all sticks and sand in 
the small pan or tray in the floor, and from the waste- 
pipe leading from it. Instead of putting ice in the water, 
it is more healthful to use water that has been cooled 
in a bottle set in the refrigerator. The water is not 
quite so cold, but the danger from disease germs is 
avoided. 

Tanks. — Tanks for ice-water in hotels and public 
places should be double, with the water in the inner 
tank, and the ice in the outer tank. Then the water 
does not come in contact with the ice. Ice is very 
necessary in the home, and must be used intelligently 
so as not to be dangerous to health. 



THE CITY WATER AND ICE 



195 



Summary. — 1. Safe drinking water must be free from disease germs 
and injurious substances, and must be clean. 

2. Water-supplies are obtained from rivers, lakes, springs, and wells. 

3. The waters of most large rivers need to be purified before they 
are suitable for drinking. 

4. Drinking water may be purified in different ways, as by filtering 
and by standing in large settling basins. 

5. The water- works of Albany consist of a settling basin, sand-filters, 
pure water-pipes, pumping-station, reservoir, and distributing pipes. 

6. The four requirements of safe, natural ice are: pure water for its 
formation, scraping, storing, and clean distribution. 

Questions. — 1 . What is the difference between pure and purified 
water ? 

2. Of what value is a pure water-supply ? 

3. How is a water-supply filtered? 

4. How does the city or town where you live obtain its water-supply ? 

5. What protection should a water-supply have? 

6. What precautions are necessary in using ice ? 




A Household Filter 



XVI. THE CITY REFUSE 

A people's health's a nation's wealth. 

Benjamin Franklin. 

Health and Waste Material. — A safe water-supply 
and a sanitary disposal of all waste material are among 
the most important questions of public hygiene. In 
small cities and rural communities the problem of waste 
disposal causes the most trouble. Waste^ material 
should be removed quickly and regularly from houses. 
Bad odors due to neglect are a warning of unhealthful 
conditions, which should be quickly remedied. In 
times of sickness and epidemics, such conditions about 
houses are a real danger in spreading disease. A bad 
odor about a house is like a pain in the body, a danger 
signal which should never be overlooked. 

Kinds of Waste Material. — The waste material of 
a city may be divided into six classes: sewage, ashes, 
garbage, rubbish, street-sweepings, and snow. We little 
think what a problem it is to collect the city waste, 
and to dispose of it in a sanitary manner. The sewage 
runs off in the sewers and is cared for separately. Snow 
also is a separate and additional expense. Of the other 
waste material, garbage, ashes, rubbish, and street- 
sweepings, there were in the three boroughs of Man- 
hattan, the Bronx, and Brooklyn, of the city of New 
York, 2,456,000 tons in one year. The city of Buffalo 

collected 190,000 tons; Philadelphia, 834,000 tons; and 

196 



THE CITY REFUSE 197 

Newark, 256,000 tons a year. In the average American 
city, from 12 to 15 per cent of the entire weight of 
waste material is garbage, from 8 to 12 per cent is 
rubbish, and from 65 to 76 per cent is ashes, including 
the street-sweepings. 

Sewage Disposal. — The disposal of water after it has 
been used has proved nearly as difficult a problem as 




Chicago Drainage Canal 

the supply of pure water. There are several (nine) 
different methods by which cities dispose of their sewage. 
Whatever method is employed must be sanitary, and 
must not cause trouble to any neighborhood. It must 
not be too expensive, and when possible, should return 
an income to help pay the running expenses. 

Rivers as the Outlets for Sewers. — The simplest 
and most common method of emptying or discharging 
sewers is into large bodies of water, as rivers, lakes, 
and the ocean. Chicago has spent nearly forty million 
dollars for a drainage canal to run from Lake Michigan 
to the Des Plaines River. This was to change the flow 



i 9 8 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

of the sewage from Lake Michigan, where the city 
obtains its water-supply, into the Des Plaines River, 
which flows into the Illinois River, and finally into 
the Mississippi. 

Danger from River-Water. — Sewage mixes with the 
large amount of water in a river, and disappears with- 
out a nuisance. As the river flows on important 
changes take place, and the water gradually becomes 
purified. In this way the river is not a serious danger to 
the health of cities located long distances apart upon it. 
With only a short distance between cities along a river 
that receives sewage, the river water has often become 
a serious danger and the cause of sickness and death. 

The Ocean as an Outlet for Sewers. — Cities situated 
on the coast may easily discharge their sewers into the 
ocean. Here there is no danger of polluting water- 
supplies. New York discharges 450,000,000 gallons of 
sewage daily into its harbor. The water of the harbor 
takes care of this large amount without a nuisance 
except at a few points where conditions will soon 
be improved. This method should be used with pre- 
caution as to the location of the outlets, when beaches 
along the shores are used as pleasure resorts. 

The Boston Sewerage System. — Boston as well as 
twenty-five neighboring cities and towns are under 
the control of the Metropolitan Water and Sewerage 
Board. In this large area of one hundred and ninety- 
one square miles, there are two related systems of 
sewers, the north and the south districts, which dis- 
charge into Boston Harbor. 



THE CITY REFUSE 199 

Sewage Farms. — Many inland cities have no large 
body of water to take care of their sewage. Under such 
conditions the sewage may be purified in one of several 
ways. Sometimes sewage is used in place of water on 
cultivated land. Such areas are called sewage-farms. 
The city first secures a large tract of land suitable for 
the purpose. Then the land is leveled and drained. 
The sewage is conducted to all parts of the field by a 
complete system of irrigation. Large crops of hay, 
grain, peas, onions, corn, and sugar beets have been 
raised in this manner. It is safer to raise only those 
vegetables that are cooked before using. 

Farms in the West. — The sewage farm of Pasadena 
is well known. In 1904, 460 acres of land were under 
cultivation. From December to April the sewage is 
used in the section where English walnuts are grown. 
This crop alone brings an income of nearly ten thou- 
sand dollars. From April to December, the sewage is 
used for vegetable crops in the open fields. Such farms 
are also found at Salt Lake City, Hastings, Fresno, 
Pomona, Redlands, Santa Rosa, and other places. 

Filtering Sewage. — Instead of allowing the sewage 
to flow over cultivated land, prepared beds or filters 
may be used. Large areas or filters are prepared with 
four or five feet of sand and gravel or cracked stone. 
These beds have ditches to carry the sewage to all 
parts of the bed and underdrains to carry off the 
purified liquid. The sewage is let on the filter till it 
stands about one inch deep, and is then allowed to 
pass slowly through the sand. The air and the sand 



2 oo HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

purify the sewage, so that it is safe to run the liquid 
into any small river. There is, however, one important 
condition for success. The filtering must not be carried 
on continuously. A period of filtering must alternate 
with a time of rest so that the sand may be filled with 
air to purify the next amount of sewage. 

Filter Beds. — Many cities have been to great ex- 
pense to build and maintain filter-beds. The Massa- 
chusetts State Board of Health established in 1887 the 
first filters, which consisted of ten small experiment 
tanks at the Experiment Station on the banks of the 
Merrimac River at Lawrence. This process was recom- 
mended to the cities and towns of Massachusetts, and 
many of them have adopted it. The filtering of sewage 
has also been employed through the middle and western 
states. In Ohio alone there are twenty-six such areas. 

Collecting the City Waste. — There are two general 
methods of collecting waste material. In some cities the 
ashes, garbage, and rubbish are kept separate by the 
householders, and different wagons collect each kind 
by itself. In other cities the material is all thrown into 
one bin and all collected together. Whether one method 
is better than the other depends entirely upon the dis- 
posal of the material. It is necessary, however, to have 
any material that is likely to decay collected often. 

Time for Collecting. — Garbage should be collected 
regularly and at a definite time. Daily in warm weather 
and two or three times a week in cold weather is not too 
often. Ashes need not be collected so frequently, since 
they do not decay. Once a week, the year round, is 



THE CITY REFUSE 



20I 



sufficient. The day of collecting should be known 
so that the householders may be prepared. In some 
cities the ash-barrels must be on the sidewalk, while in 
other cities they may be in the yard. Placing the ash- 
barrels on the curb is a poor practice, for their contents 
are much more likely to be blown about or disturbed 




New Type of Garbace Collection Wagon 

by boys and rag-pickers. This practice gives a city a 
very untidy appearance. 

Collecting the Street-Sweepings. — Sweepings are 
usually collected separately, although this material may 
contain much rubbish. A large street-sweeper in gen- 
eral use is drawn by one or two horses. The dust is 
swept to one side of the road, where it is collected into 
piles by men, and delivered into a cart which follows 
the sweeping-machine. A smaller sweeper pushed by 
one man is in use in some cities. Sometimes a crew of 
men clean the street, and deposit the dust in cans carried 
along on a low wagon. 



202 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



Cleaning Small Areas. — Hand-carts, cans, and bags 
are useful in keeping crossings and small squares neat 
and clean. A man can often collect leaves, papers, 
and other refuse with a hand-cart where a horse 
cannot go. 

Requirements for Refuse Disposal. — Whatever sys- 
tem of disposal is adopted by a city, it should fulfil 

two conditions: (i) it 
should be done in a 
sanitary manner, and not 
be objectionable to the 
sight or smell; (2) it 
should be conducted at 
as low a cost as possible 
with satisfactory results. 
Disposal of Waste 
Material. — Several ways 
have been employed by 
cities to take care of 
their waste material. 
Dumping on land is one 
of the simplest and 
easiest ways, and has 
long been in use. Ashes are well adapted to filling in 
low places and to making new land. When garbage 
and street-sweepings are used in this way many years 
are required for complete decomposition before the 
land is fit to live on. In the meantime, it may be a 
source of great annoyance and trouble to the neighbors. 
When rubbish is also added, a great city nuisance is 




Rubbish Cart 



THE CITY REFUSE 203 

created. The wind blows old papers about, and litters 
streets and yards for a long distance. Boys like to build 
fires on the dump, and so endanger surrounding property. 
The annoyance from the smoke, dust, and odors of a fire 
burning on a dump can only be properly condemned by 
one who has experienced them. 

Made Land. — Much valuable .land has been made 
or improved by dumping ashes. On Riker's Island, in 
the East River, New York, about eighty acres have 
been made and are valued at $10,000 an acre. Com- 
paring an old map of Boston with a recent one will show 
that a very large section of that city from Columbus 
Avenue and Charles Street to the Charles River has 
been made or reclaimed from the water in this way. 
This area includes some of the most valuable property 
in the city. In Chicago, Grant Park has been partly 
built with the city ashes. 

Dumping in Water. — All kinds of waste material 
have been dumped into large lakes or into the sea by 
cities located on their borders. This is an easy way 
to dispose of refuse. The material is loaded on large flat 
boats or scows, towed out into deep water, and dumped. 
Special boats have been built for this purpose. 

Disadvantages. — There are many disadvantages in 
this method. During the winter, storms and rough 
waters interfere with the service, and the material will 
collect at the stations and become troublesome. A 
still greater annoyance is the washing ashore of old 
mattresses, barrels, and light material on the shores of 
the pleasure beaches along the coast. Bathing under 



204 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

such conditions loses much of its charm. After carry- 
ing refuse out to sea fifty miles or farther, some material 
is still likely to be washed ashore. 

Plowing Material into the Soil. — Only part of the 
material — garbage and the street-sweepings — can be 
disposed of in this way. So large an area would be 
needed by any city that this would hardly be practi- 
cable. Moreover, in cold weather in northern cities, it 
would be impossible to plow the land. 

Feeding to Swine. — In some small cities or towns 
the garbage could be fed to swine. The material would 
need to be kept free from other refuse, and be collected 
regularly every day while fresh. Worcester, Massa- 
chusetts, feeds the city garbage to swine on the poor 
farm, and receives a good price for the pork produced. 
Other methods are probably better adapted to large 
cities. 

Treating Garbage. — Many large cities dispose of the 
different kinds of wastes in various ways. The treat- 
ment of the garbage is one of the larger problems, 
partly because it forms from twelve to fifteen per 
cent of the entire waste, amounting to thousands of 
tons, and partly because it must be done quickly and 
regularly before the garbage decomposes. 

The Treating Process. — In some cities a large build- 
ing or plant is erected containing many large tanks. 
The garbage is emptied into these tanks, and heated to 
a very high temperature. Then the material is pressed, 
and all the fat and water runs out. What is left is sold 
for fertilizing the soil. The fat is sold for about three 



THE CITY REFUSE 



205 



cents a pound, and is used in the manufacture of cheap 
perfumery and wagon-grease. The garbage is changed 
into water, fat, and fertilizer material, and the last two 
substances are sold to help pay the running expenses. 

Objections to this Process. — The furnaces and 
buildings are very costly, so that only large cities are 
able to erect them. The plants are also very expensive 




Pressing Fat from Cooked Garbage 



to run. Many of the plants create very bad odors so 
that they have to be located outside of the city, which 
makes a long and expensive carting of the garbage. 
Works for treating garbage have been erected in New 
York, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Cleveland, and other 
cities. Some cities have tried this method and given it 
up, on account of the great expense of running it. 

Burning Waste Material. — Burning has the advan- 
tage of disposing of all kinds of waste material. Ashes 



206 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

can be burned as they still contain from fifteen to 
thirty per cent of material that will burn. Garbage 
may be dried and then easily burned. Much of the 
rubbish is dry and very combustible when collected. 
The rubbish, street-sweepings, and ashes may be 
used as fuel for burning the other waste materials. 
This method is largely used in cities in England. In 
America crematories are in use in New York, Syracuse, 
Chicago, San Francisco, New Orleans, Los Angeles, and 
many other places. 

Advantages of Burning. — Great advantages are 
claimed for crematories. First, they care for all kinds 
of waste, and burn them all to ashes. Second, the 
process is not very expensive as the rubbish, ashes, and 
street-sweepings form the fuel. Third, the expense 
may be still further reduced by converting the heat into 
electricity for use as power. Fourth, it is a sanitary 
process, as all disease germs are killed. Fifth, more 
than one plant can be built, which would reduce the 
running expenses by shortening the distance for carting. 
Sixth, only one collection of waste is necessary and the 
different materials do not have to be kept separate. 

City Crematories. — A crematory usually consists of 
a long narrow building with a very high chimney. 
The building may be divided into two rooms, a small 
furnace room and a long packing room. Through the 
center of the packing room runs an endless steel belt, 
which is level for part of the distance, and then rises 
along an inclined plane. On either side of the level 
track are large wooden bins which connect with large 



THE CITY REFUSE 



207 



presses in the basement. The elevated part of the 
belt is directly over a platform above the furnace. 

How the Refuse is Burned. — A city cart filled with 
refuse drives through the doorway into the crematory. 
It dumps the material on the platform above the 
steel belt, which carries it along between the two rows 





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Sorting out Salable Refuse 

of bins. Here men are stationed who take out paper, 
cardboard, rags, clothing, carpets, leather, rubber, 
bottles, and tins and put each in its proper bin. All 
articles that are salable — about one fourth of the en- 
tire amount — are taken off the steel belt as it travels 
between the two rows of men. The material picked 
out is of such value that contractors are willing to 
pay $1.98 per ton for it. In New York, the weekly 
privilege of picking out material has sold for sums 
varying from $1175 to $1920. The worthless ma- 



208 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

terial is carried over and upward, and finally drops 
off the belt into the furnace. The sorted material 
that has dropped into bins in the basement is then 
pressed, and made into bales ready to be sold and 
carried away. The heat from the burning refuse is the 
source of power for the moving belt, for lighting the 



Belt Carrying Refuse to Furnace *&& 

building with electricity, and for heating the building 
by steam. This is certainly a clean and safe way of 
disposing of refuse of all kinds. 

Snow on City Streets. — A heavy fall of snow in a 
great city causes a large amount of trouble, work, and 
expense. The storm may damage the wires, delay 
traffic, and interfere with business. Along the main 
streets, the trolley snow-plow throws the snow off the 
car- tracks to the sides. Teaming and traffic of all kinds 
are very difficult until the piles of snow are removed. 

The Removal of Snow. — If the fall of snow is 



THE CITY REFUSE 



209 



followed by a few days of melting, there is a still 
greater need of removing it and clearing the gutters 
so that the water may run off into the sewers. Snow 
is carted off in large wagons that have swinging sides 
or that dump from the rear. Sometimes the city teams 
remove the snow; sometimes the entire work is let out 




Garbage Crematory at Buffalo 

to contractors, who do the work at a certain price 
agreed upon. 

Dumping Snow. — When a city is situated on a 
river, lake, or ocean, the snow is often carted and 
dumped into the water. When the water is a long 
distance away, snow is sometimes dumped in vacant 
lots in or near the city. In warm climates, and when 
there is little snow, it may be washed into the sewers, 
if they are large enough to carry off the additional 
water. 



210 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

The Expense. — The cost of removing snow from 
city streets must vary according to the amount of snow, 
and the location of the city. In the city of New York, 
the annual cost of removing snow is nearly $3000 a mile, 
or thirty-three cents a cubic yard. 

Public Cleanliness. — While personal cleanliness re- 
quires a great amount of time, work, and expense, 
public cleanliness presents still greater problems. But 
it must be remembered that the health of a city depends 
upon the right solution of these questions. 

Summary. — 1. Waste material should be removed quickly from all 
houses and in a sanitary manner. 

2. Sewage emptied into lakes and rivers should first be purified 
by filtering. 

3. In regions where water is scarce, sewage is used in raising crops. 

4. Dumping the city rubbish into the ocean is an unsanitary 
practice as it is soon washed up on the beaches along the shore. 

5. Burning or cremating all of the city waste is the most sanitary, 
and probably the most satisfactory arrangement. 

6. The removal of snow is necessary on the chief business streets 
of a city. 

Questions. — 1 . What are the different kinds of city waste ? 

2. What is the most sanitary disposal of sewage? 

3. How is the waste collected in the city or town where you live? 

4. What kinds of wagons are used for this purpose ? 

5. What are the advantages of burning the city waste? 

6. Of what value are street-sweepings? 



XVII. THE CITY STREETS 

" Why don't they keep the streets a little cleaner ? " 

You ask with deep annoyance not undue. 
"Why don't they keep the parks a little greener? " 

Did you ever stop to think that they means you ? — Life. 

The General Appearance of a City. — The appearance 
of a city plays an important part in its growth and 
development. An attractive city appeals not only to 
desirable residents but also to travelers and tourists. 




William Penn's Plan for Philadelphia 

A city should not only be healthy and safe, but should 
have convenient and stately streets and buildings. 

City Plans. — In many American cities the cross 
streets run at right angles to several long, parallel 
avenues. This is called the checker-board plan. New 
York and Philadelphia are notable examples of such 
planning. Philadelphia was the earliest city in America 
laid out in this way. The first plan of Philadelphia was 



212 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

prepared under the direction of its founder, William 
Penn. The original city covered about two square 
miles, and was laid out according to the plan in 1682. 
This plan indicated Logan, Rittenhouse, Franklin, and 
Washington Squares as the possible limits of the city. 




A View in Washington 

A comparison of this plan with a map of the city today, 
will show how much the city has grown. 

Washington. — The national capital, Washington, 
has been called the most beautiful city of America. 
This honor is due largely to its beautiful streets, avenues, 
and squares, as well as to its large and imposing build- 
ings. Most of the streets are laid out at right angles 
according to the checker-board plan. In addition, 



THE CITY STREETS 213 

there is a system of fine avenues running diagonally 
through the city. Where the diagonals and streets 
meet, many beautiful squares have been laid out. 
Indianapolis also has broad diagonal avenues which 
meet at a circular park in the center of the city. 

Chicago and Buffalo. — The plan of Chicago shows 
that its streets are laid out at right angles. In addition 
there are several avenues radiating in different direc- 
tions from the heart of the city to the suburbs. These 
are a direct means of traffic, and serve as routes of car- 
lines to all parts of the city. The plan of Buffalo also 
is an improvement on the checker-board plan. Main 
avenues radiate from the business center, which is near 
the water-front. They connect nearly all parts of the 
city with the business quarter. 

Cities without Plans. — Many American cities have 
grown from towns and villages without definite plans. 
The narrow and crooked streets of Boston are a result 
of such growth. After business blocks are once erected 
it is difficult to widen streets or sidewalks without 
great expense. Sometimes a fire or an earthquake 
destroys so many buildings that it is possible to 
rebuild a city on a grander scale. 

Replanning a City. — Often, as a city grows, it is 
necessary to adopt a new plan for its future develop- 
ment. Then the chief public buildings are located near 
one another, and may be placed along a fine avenue, or 
about a square. This would form the civic center of 
the city. Sometimes neighborhood centers are planned 
about a park, a branch library, a public bath-house or a 



2i 4 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

schoolhouse. A park system with boulevards usually 
holds a conspicuous place in any new plan. 

The Need of a Plan. — Many cities are just awaken- 
ing to the fact that they need a plan for future growth. 
Such a plan would prevent the building of narrow 
streets and the crowding of dwelling houses. Some 
of the larger and older cities have spent millions of 
dollars to relieve the overcrowding that a good city plan 
would have prevented. If a plan for the city streets 
was in force, land speculators would find it hard to build 
for their private gain to the injury of the public. 

City Streets. — The streets of a city may be laid out 
and built either by the city or by any person who owns 
the land. The better way is for a city to build the streets 
and sidewalks before the houses are erected. Then the 
street will be of the width best suited to the neighbor- 
hood, and all of the sidewalks will be built. When real 
estate dealers buy a section of land for buildings, the 
object usually is to make the most money rather than 
to make the best neighborhood. 

The Names of Streets. — A very common practice 
in American cities is to number the long avenues, as 
First or Second Avenue. The streets that cross these 
are then lettered, as A Street and B Street. The only 
advantage of this prosaic method is that it is easy to 
find any house. The address indicates the location. 
The city of Paris has a unique and satisfactory way 
of indicating the streets. They are named for scholars 
in one district, for soldiers in another district, and for 
an event in a third. Naming the streets for men 



THE CITY STREETS 215 

and women of distinction is a valuable custom. Local 
history and traditions may also be preserved in the 
names of streets. 

The Width of Streets. — Many of the streets in cities 
are not wide enough to let in sufficient air and sunlight. 




Copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. 

A Wide Business Street in New York 

High buildings and narrow streets are a menance to 
health. Wide streets are a great aid to traffic in the 
business districts. In the center of a city, streets of 
100 to 140 feet are not too wide to prevent crowding. 
In a residential district, the streets may be from 60 to 
80 feet wide. Even then there may be a wide sidewalk 
and a strip of grass or parking. In many of the older 



216 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

places in New England the streets are only 30 to 40 feet 
wide. In the West a street is seldom less than 60 to 
66 feet in width. The main avenues in Washington are 
160 feet wide, and in New York 135 feet. The propor- 
tion of the area of streets to the entire area of a city va- 
ries very much in different cities. In Washington 43 per 
cent of the entire area is devoted to streets and alleys. 
The area of streets in New York City is 35 per cent, 
in Boston 26 per cent, in Philadelphia 29 per cent, and 
in Duluth, Minnesota, 86 per cent. 

A Good Street or Road. — We all appreciate a fine 
street when driving or walking. A well-built street 
should be dry: During a heavy shower the water runs 
into the gutters, and the street soon dries. A fine 
street should' be solid. On a sandy or soft street the 
wheels cut into the soil, and traffic is very difficult. A 
good street should never be steep. Driving down steep 
roads, as well as up, is difficult and takes more strength 
and time than on nearly level roads. A fine street must 
be smooth. Uneven places or stones lying in the road 
make driving very unpleasant. 

Kinds of Streets. — In order to make traffic and 
cleaning easy, most of the city streets are improved or 
paved. The construction of roads is one of the prob- 
lems of engineering. All roads are built with at least 
a foundation and a surface layer, which forms the pave- 
ment. The kind of pavement used gives its name to 
the kind of street. The pavements of streets are built 
of earth, gravel, stone blocks, wood blocks, brick, 
asphalt, and broken stone. 



THE CITY STREETS 217 

Gravel Streets. — In the suburbs of cities there are 
still many streets built of earth. There is usually little 
traffic, and the time has not yet arrived for the use of 
more enduring material. Many cross streets of cities 
were made of gravel before the introduction of the more 
modern paving, and are still doing good service. 




A Cobblestone Pavement 

Stone Block Paving. — Most of the older cities in 
America can still show many miles of streets with the 
old cobblestone pavements. They were an improve- 
ment on mud, but are difficult for teaming and very 
painful for driving. Many of these streets have been 
repaved or covered with smoother material. In the 
more modern stone pavements the blocks are cubical 
in shape, and make a smooth pavement. The dis- 
advantages of this kind of pavement are that the 
streets are noisy, wear smooth and slippery, and are 
difficult to keep clean. 

Wood Pavements. — Some of the best pavements 
have been made of wood blocks of either cylindrical or 



2l8 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



cubical shape. This pavement is perfectly smooth, 
durable, noiseless, and without dust. Some of them, 
however, have proved very slippery when wet. Most 
of the large cities have experimented with this kind of 
pavement, and Chicago has 650 miles of it. 




Wood Block Pavement 

Brick Pavements. — Streets of brick paving are 
increasing in number. They are largely used in Phila- 
delphia, the cities of Ohio and Illinois, and in many 
smaller western cities and towns. Such streets offer a 
sufficiently smooth surface, are easily repaired and 
cleaned, and are not very noisy. 

Asphalt Pavements. — Asphalt forms a very smooth 
and popular paving. Philadelphia has over 350 miles 
of it, and Buffalo over 200 miles. It is noiseless, 
easily cleaned, durable, easily repaired, and produces 
neither mud nor dust. It makes an excellent street for 
either city or suburban districts. 

Broken Stone Streets. — The streets in the suburbs of 
a city are often made of broken stone. They are easy 



THE CITY STREETS 



219 



for driving, comparatively noiseless, and of moderate 
cost. They are, however, muddy when wet, dusty 
when dry, and are difficult to clean. Many of the park 
roads and state roads are built of this material. Some 
of the smaller cities have fine stone or macadam roads. 




Asphalt Pavement, Chicago 

The city of Newton in Massachusetts has sixty miles 
of the finest kept roads. Waltham and Cambridge, in 
Massachusetts, and Staten Island, in New York, have 
many miles of macadam streets. Boston has three 
hundred miles of such streets, mostly in the suburbs. 

Dusty Streets. — The prevention of dust on streets 
has come to be a serious question. Since automobiles 
have become common, the raising and scattering of dust 
has greatly increased. The broad heavy tires of auto- 
mobiles draw out the small particles from the road, and 
raise clouds of dust. The wearing away of the surface 
of some pavements also causes dust. The damage from 



220 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

dust may be very serious. When blown into a house 
it settles upon pictures, furniture, and books. On some 
streets closed windows are more comfortable than open 
ones. Occasionally the value of fine estates have been 
greatly reduced by the constant presence of great clouds 
of dust raised by the passing automobiles. 

Sprinkling Streets. — The most common way of lay- 
ing the dust is by sprinkling the streets with water. 
Since it is necessary, however, to sprinkle a street seven 
or eight times a day to make it dustless, this is very 
costly. Salt water also has been tried but is not 
satisfactory. The mud injures clothes, vehicles,' and 
other objects, and the dust is very irritating to eyes and 
throats. 

Oiling Streets. — Various kinds of oils and mixtures 
of oil with water and potash have been tried. Some 
attempts have been very successful in allaying the dust. 
Sometimes officials have been too generous with the 
oil, and covered plants, sidewalks, trees, and vehicles 
with it, much to the discomfort of passers-by. 

The Use of Tar-Products. — The most satisfactory 
results have been obtained by using a preparation of 
coal-tar products. This is spread on the entire street 
and allowed to harden before using. It has the double 
advantage of not only preventing dust, but also of pre- 
serving the surface of the street. Such roads will stand 
the traffic of many heavy automobiles and still be dust- 
less. Many long roads stretching from city to city 
throughout the country have been treated in this way 
in recent years. 



THE CITY STREETS 221 

Clean Streets. — It is not dust alone that makes 
streets dirty and unsanitary. Old papers, horse-drop- 
pings, ashes, leaves, chips, fruit-peelings, and other 
rubbish are seen in the streets. The value of clean 
streets to a city is very great. They add much to the 
fine appearance of a city. The residents enjoy walking 




The Dust Nuisance 

and driving better when the streets are clean. Windows 
and doors may also be kept open for the better ventila- 
tion of the houses. 

How Streets are Cleaned. — When a street is to be 
cleaned a watering-cart first goes over it to lay the 
dust. Next a machine-sweeper, drawn by one or two 
horses, sweeps the dirt into a line on one side of the 
street, near the gutter. Then a squad of men follow 
with brooms and brush up the dirt into piles along the 
side of the street. Carts soon follow, and the men 
shovel the dirt into the carts. The sweepings are then 
hauled away to dumps, vacant lots, or to scows that 



222 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

take the material out to sea. Some streets are swept by 
hand instead of by machines. 

Time for Cleaning Streets. — In the business sections 
of a city most of the cleaning must be done during the 
night so as not to interfere with traffic and business. 
During the day, push carts may be used to pick up 
waste paper, fruit-skins, and other refuse. Such streets 
should be cleaned every night. In the residential part 
of the city and in the suburbs the work is done during 
the day and much less often. 

Waste Barrels. — In some cities barrels are placed at 
conspicuous places along the street for the reception of 
papers and other refuse. They may bear a legend to 
encourage cleanliness, for example, "Be sanitary and 
you'll be sane." It is important that these barrels 
should be kept clean and not be allowed to become 
overfull. Iron boxes attached to posts may serve the 
same purpose, 

The New York Streets. — The most notable example 
in the cleaning of streets was that of New York, while 
Colonel Waring was Street Cleaning Commissioner. 
He introduced new wagons and utensils, and new 
methods of work. He improved the condition of the 
men in his employ, and obtained much better results. 
He raised their wages, and put them into white uni- 
forms. He formed the first Juvenile Street Cleaning 
Leagues of New York. Forty-four leagues with a 
membership of 2500 school children were enrolled in 
the crusade for cleanliness. The chief object was to 
urge their parents and housekeepers to obey the sanitary 



THE CITY STREETS 223 

laws. For rive years they did enthusiastic and valuable 
work until the resignation of Colonel Waring, soon after 
which the leagues were disbanded. 

The Juvenile Street Cleaning Leagues. — In 1908 
leagues were again organized for volunteer aid to the 
Department of Street Cleaning. There are nearly one 
hundred leagues with a membership of over 25,000 
children. Each league is connected with a public school 
and is often under the direction of a teacher. Each 
child receives a certificate of membership. All of the 
leagues have adopted the following uniform civic pledge, 
which is read at each meeting: 

" We, who are soon to become citizens of New York, 
the largest city on the American continent, desire her to 
possess a name that is beyond all reproach, and therefore 
we agree to refrain from littering our streets and as much 
as possible to prevent others from doing the same, in order 
that our city streets may be as clean as our city is great, 
and as pure as our country is free." 

Each league holds its meetings at a school-building, and 
elects its officers and committees. Over 3000 badges 
have been distributed to the officers and to the members 
as rewards for faithful work. The school and street 
committee prevent the throwing of waste paper about 
school-buildings. The sanitary committee urge upon 
their neighbors the necessity of keeping their homes, 
halls, and cellars in a sanitary condition. The vigilant 
committees look after the blocks in which they live. 
Each member carries a copy of the sanitary laws, and 
explains them to the people living on his own block. 



224 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



Most of the work of the leagues is in harmony with the 
motto on the badges : 

"We are for Clean Streets." 

Street Lighting. — Well-lighted streets are a necessity 
in a safe city. Philadelphia is probably the best lighted 
city in the country. There are many 
small courts and passageways which 
are all sufficiently lighted. The street 
lighting in New York is very spectac- 
ular. The central part of Broadway is 
probably the most brilliantly illumi- 
nated avenue in the world. 

Electric Lamps. — Electricity is used 
almost exclusively in the business 
sections of cities, and in the chief 
streets of the residential sections and 
suburbs. There are several styles of 
lamps used, including the arc, the 
incandescent, and the tungsten. Phil- 
adelphia has over 9000 arc lights, 
Chicago about 6000, and New York 
about 12,000. Some of the smaller 
cities like Spokane and Syracuse use 
electricity entirely for lighting. 

Lamp Posts. — There is an endless variety of designs 
for electric lamp posts. Most of them are variations 
of three types, the straight post with an upright lamp 
support, the post with a Bishop's crook, and the post 
with a horizontal mast-arm. Some cities make the 




Electric Lamp 
Post 



THE CITY STREETS 
ornamental as well 



225 
useful 



posts serve an ornamental as well as 
purpose. 

Gas-Lights . — Gas is still used largely for lighting 
cross streets and alleys. The incandes- 
cent lamp is generally used, and gives a 
very satisfactory light. St. Louis has 
over 9000 more such lights than of any 
other kind. Boston has 8000 more and 
New York has 7000 more than any other 
kind. 

Trees on the City Streets. — Shade- 
trees.are a great addition to the streets 
of t the residential districts of cities. 
They add to the healthfulness of a 
region by lessening the intense heat of 
the city streets in summer. They also 
relieve the great monotony of rows of 
brick blocks. By improving the general 
appearance, they increase the value of 
the houses located along the street. 

Characteristics of Shade-Trees. — Not 
all trees are suitable to plant in streets. A shade-tree 
should be hardy and long lived so as to last fifty 
years or more without replanting. A shade-tree 
should be straight and well-shaped to be an ornament 
to the street. It should be cleanly and free from 
insects, so that the leaves, flowers, or fruit will not fall 
upon the sidewalk beneath. A shade-tree should be 
only of medium size so that it will not shut out light 
and air from the houses beside it. 




Electric Lamp 
Post 



226 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Kinds of Shade-Trees. — The experience of cities has 
shown that there are only ten or twelve different kinds 
of trees that make ideal shade-trees. The Norway, 
sycamore, and red maples are stately and attrac- 
tive. The pin oak, the red oak, the scarlet oak, the 




A Street in St. Louis 



linden, the elms, the horse-chestnut, and the ash 
are all valuable for city trees. A study of the trees 
planted in a section of a city or town would be very 
instructive. 

The Care of Trees. — In order to live under the trying 
conditions of a city, the trees should receive the very 
best treatment. They should be set out with great care, 
and should be watered, pruned, staked, and guarded. 
A row of well-trained trees on each side of a street is a 
beautiful sight. Some cities employ a city forester 
whose chief care is the city trees. 



THE CITY STREETS 227 

A City Forester. — This officer is fully equipped for 
his duties. He has a staff of men well-trained in forestry. 
He also has the latest devices for the handling and the 
spraying of trees. Among his duties are the planting 
of trees along the city streets. The spraying of trees 
when infested with injurious insects often becomes 
necessary. The pruning and cutting down of injured 
and dead trees also comes under his supervision. Some- 
times a Shade-Tree Commission performs the duties 
of a city forester. In towns and villages the tree 
wardens have the care of the trees along the public 
highways. 

The Use of Streets. — The city streets are for the 
use of the public, but for the convenience of all persons 
it has been found best to regulate traffic. Heavy team- 
ing is forbidden on many parkways and boulevards. 
The rate of speed is also limited. There are also many 
other regulations. 

The Traffic Regulations. — In some cities the Board 
of Street Commissioners issue street traffic regulations 
and rules for driving. These apply to vehicles in motion, 
to their speed, to their stopping, standing, turning, and 
to care in driving. On some narrow and crowded 
streets vehicles may drive in only one direction. A 
special squad of mounted police patrol the business 
section of a city to enforce these regulations. Any one 
violating a regulation is liable to a fine. 



228 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Summary. — i. Many American cities are laid out according to 
the checker-board plan. 

2. When replanning a city, many of the finest public buildings 
are located near each other to form a civic center. 

3. City pavements may be made of earth, gravel, stone block, 
wood block, brick, asphalt, or broken stone. 

4. A good street should be dry, solid, smooth, and without very 
steep hills. 

5. The best way to lay dust and to preserve the road is to cover it 
with a coal-tar preparation. 

6. Streets are cleaned by sweeping and sometimes by washing or 
flushing. 

7. Electric and gas-lights are generally used for lighting streets. 

8. The enforcement of the traffic regulations helps to make a city 
safe. 

Questions. — 1. Can you mention some of the streets in the place 
where you live that are well-named? 

2. How wide is the street on which the schoolhouse stands? The 
street on which your home is located? 

3. How are the streets cleaned near your home? How often? 

4. What are the advantages of clean streets? 

5. What are the different ways of laying dust in use in the city or 
town where you live? 

6. Can you make a plan of some street near the schoolhouse, 
and locate and name the shade-trees on it? 



XVIII. THE DISEASES DANGEROUS TO THE 
PUBLIC HEALTH 

"Life is not to live, but to be well." 

Dangerous Diseases. — The diseases that are most 
dangerous to the public are those that spread from one 
person to another. For this reason they are called 
contagious diseases. The most common are consump- 
tion, pneumonia, diphtheria, typhoid fever, influenza, 
scarlet fever, meningitis, measles, and whooping-cough. 

Their Cause. — Most of these diseases are caused by 
minute plants or germs. These are so small that they 
can be seen only through a microscope. The germs 
find their way into the human body, where they grow 
and multiply very fast. They are living plants which 
produce poisons, and it is these poisons acting upon 
the body that cause the illness. The paralysis of 
the throat in diphtheria, and the wasting away in 
consumption, . are due to these poisons. In most cases 
each disease is caused by one definite kind of germ 
which is always present when a person is sick with 
that particular disease. 

Another Condition. — The presence of certain disease 
germs is not the only condition necessary for an attack 
of illness. A strong vigorous person may carry the 
germs of disease in his body a long time without being 
ill. In such a case the body is able to keep them in 

229 



230 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

check. These germs require certain conditions of 
moisture, warmth, and food for growing and increasing 
in number. In addition the well person has the power 
to resist them. If a person is feeble, or in poor physical 
condition, the body loses this power. If the germs are 
present, and the conditions are favorable for them, they 
will thrive. Then the person has an attack of disease. 
A weakened condition of the body and the presence of 
the special germs are both usually necessary for an 
attack of a contagious disease. 

Diseases of Different Seasons. — Certain diseases 
are more common at one season of the year than at 
other seasons. In the cold weather diseases of the 
respiratory organs, such as diphtheria, pneumonia, and 
influenza, are more frequent. These, however, are not 
due directly to the cold weather. During that season 
most persons stay in the house a large part of the time. 
Breathing impure air weakens the body, which then 
takes disease more easily. During the warm weather 
diseases of the digestive organs are common, especially 
among young children. These are due to extreme 
changes in the diet. The poisons produced by germs in 
unclean milk cause much sickness among young children. 

Consumption. — Consumption causes more deaths in 
the United States than any other single disease. It is 
especially dangerous because most consumptives are ill 
a long time, and may give the disease to relatives, 
friends, and neighbors. Consumption is caused by 
definite germs, which live in the lungs, and gradually 
destroy them. All consumptives should be taught to 



DISEASES DANGEROUS TO PUBLIC HEALTH 231 

destroy their sputum while it is still moist. The most 
common way of taking the disease is by inhaling the 
dried sputum. In dusty streets, public buildings, and 
cars, this may mix with dust and become a real danger 
to many persons. 

Pneumonia. — In some American cities pneumonia 
ranks first as the most deadly disease. Throughout 
the United States it ranks next to consumption. It 
is caused by germs that attack the lungs, causing inflam- 
mation or fever. The signs or symptoms of the disease 
may be like those of a severe cold. A pain in the chest, 
a sudden chill, quick breathing, and a flushed face warn 
a person of pneumonia. 

A City Disease. — Pneumonia is a distinct disease 
of the house and the city. In the extreme North, 
persons may be exposed to the intense cold and to fre- 
quent wetting without taking the disease. The germs 
also must be present. Pneumonia is most common in 
winter or early spring, when the energy and strength of 
persons living in cities has been reduced by living most 
of the time for six months in hot and close houses. 

A Disease of the Weak. — Pneumonia often attacks 
persons already weakened or recovering from some 
other disease. It attacks the underfed and the over- 
worked. It also frequently attacks strong, able-bodied 
persons who are careless in regard to their health. 
Pneumonia attacks persons of all ages, but is most fre- 
quent among those from ten to thirty-five years of age. 
It is most fatal, however, among children under six 
years of age and among persons over sixty years. 



232 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Diphtheria,— Diphtheria ranks third in causing sick- 
ness and sorrow. This disease is due to a special kind 
of germ that attacks the throat. These germs form a 
virulent poison which causes the sickness. There is 
also danger of the germs stopping the air-passages. 
Diphtheria is most frequent among children from two to 
seven years of age. Persons over thirty seldom take 
it. The early symptoms are headache, general sick- 
ness, and a sore throat with red and gray patches on it. 

How Spread. — One case of diphtheria is often traced 
directly to a previous one. The disease may be spread 
by breathing the air of the room used by the sick person. 
Sometimes clothing, dishes, toys, and books carry the 
germs. Infected milk frequently is a common cause. 
There are cases sometimes too mild to be recognized 
as diphtheria, and which pass for sore throats. Such 
persons are often a dangerous means of spreading the 
disease as they go freely about. 

Antitoxin. — One of the greatest discoveries in medi- 
cine during the last century was the discovery and use 
of antitoxin in the treatment of diphtheria. This treat- 
ment has saved many lives. Formerly half of the cases 
of diphtheria all over the world were fatal. Now only 
nine out of every one hundred cases are fatal. In 
special hospitals the rate is as low as three out of 
every one hundred cases. Recovery is much quicker 
when antitoxin is used, and its early use does the 
most good. 

Typhoid Fever. — Typhoid fever is a disease of adult 
life. About three quarters of all the cases occur in 




DISEASES DANGEROUS TO PUBLIC HEALTH 233 

persons between fifteen and forty years of age. Among 
children it is mild, and often not recognized. A person 
seldom has the disease more than once. Typhoid fever 
is caused by a definite kind of germ which is always 
taken into the body _^ q 
by the food or water, 
and hence invades, ^^iS^'P^lAV^ ?! 
at first, the intestinal 

trPrt Diphtheria Typhoid Fever 

TX ^ . - A Germs of Disease, highly Magnified 

How Carried. — A 

case of typhoid fever may often be traced to a pre- 
vious one. There are several ways in which the germs 
may be carried, namely : by water, by milk, by raw 
vegetables, by fruit, by oysters, by flies, and by being 
near a person who has typhoid fever. Probably more 
than three quarters of all the typhoid fever is caused 
by germs in impure drinking water. Even some of 
the cases traced to milk are caused by the water 
either put into the milk or used in washing out the 
milk-cans. This shows how important it is to use 
pure drinking water in city or country. The disease 
may also be spread by dairymen who send their milk 
to the city. The Board of Health of New York City 
has been very careful to require, every week, a certifi- 
cate of health from all dairymen. As a result, during 
the last five years there has not been a single epidemic 
of typhoid fever in New York City that could be traced 
to the milk supply. 

Influenza. — Probably influenza has been one of the 
best known diseases during the last ten years. An 



234 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

attack may be very mild, lasting only a few weeks, or 
it may be very serious or even fatal. It often occurs 
with pneumonia during the cold weather. This disease 
is also caused by a germ, so that it may spread from 
person to person. The first symptoms are somewhat 
like those of a severe cold or pneumonia. A chill, fever, 
cough, and general pains mark the beginning. 

Importance of the Disease. — It is important to 
recognize influenza from the first, since the early symp- 
toms are so much like more serious diseases such as 
pneumonia. Influenza often occurs in connection with 
other diseases. When influenza is common, other 
diseases like bronchitis, pneumonia, and consumption 
are much more severe and fatal. 

Scarlet Fever. — This is a serious disease of childhood. 
Most young persons under fifteen years of age are likely 
to take the disease if exposed to it. Scarlet fever is 
very contagious. Only two other diseases, measles and 
small-pox, are more easily taken. The minute scales 
given off from the body carry the disease. There is 
danger from mild forms that are not recognized. These 
persons may give the disease to others at school, in the 
cars, and wherever they meet them. 

How Identified. — Scarlet fever comes on suddenly 
with a chill, a sore throat, headache, and nausea. In 
a few days the red color of the skin is characteristic. 
Any child with such symptoms should be kept away 
from other children, and immediately receive medical 
care. The spreading of the disease can only be pre- 
vented by keeping the sick persons away from the well, 






DISEASES DANGEROUS TO PUBLIC HEALTH 235 

and by thoroughly disinfecting all the articles that are 
in the sick room. Some of the worst features of the 
disease are the after effects upon the eyes and ears. 

Meningitis. — One of the most dangerous of con- 
tagious diseases is meningitis. This also is most com- 
mon among persons under thirty years of age. It occurs 
often in the crowded districts of cities, and in winter or 
spring with pneumonia. This disease is caused by germs 
which attack the covering of the brain and spinal cord. 
It may be taken by one person from another who is ill 
with it. It is not as contagious as measles or scarlet 
fever, which may be taken from the air of sick rooms. 

Measles. — This is one of the most common diseases 
among children. While most persons have measles but 
once, it is possible to have them a second time. The 
early symptoms are headache, sore throat, cough, and 
an eruption in the throat or on the face. It is very 
contagious. A person may take it directly from another 
person or simply from being in the room with the sick 
one. 

Whooping-Cough. — The course of this sickness may 
be long and tedious, although not very serious. The 
chief features are the spasms of coughing ending in a 
peculiar whoop. Being with the sick for only a 
very short time exposes one to the disease. 

Children's Diseases. — Among the diseases common 
to childhood that have already been described are 
measles, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and whooping-cough. 
Others are mumps, chicken-pox, and German measles. 

These not Necessary. — Formerly every one thought 



236 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

that it was best for children to have the different chil- 
dren's diseases when they were young, and "be through 
with them." No pains were taken to keep well children 
away from the sick. Children were even exposed to 
them purposely. As a result there was loss of time, 
money, and life. Many children were disabled or 
weakened for life, and many never reached their fifth 
birthday. Now it is known that the safest way is to 
keep children well and strong, and to keep them away 
from all contagious diseases 

How to Prevent Children's Diseases. — Many of the 
diseases common to childhood are due to germs. One 
of the chief means of preventing such diseases from 
spreading is to keep all well children away from the 
sick. Another necessary precaution is to disinfect or 
kill the germs on all objects that the sick have used. 
In some cities school-physicians and nurses care for the 
health of public school children. If a child appears ill 
the physician examines him. If really ill he is imme- 
diately sent home, and the nurse sees that he has proper 
care. In this way children are taken from school when 
they first become ill, and are prevented from spreading 
a contagious disease among their schoolmates. A clean 
mouth and whole teeth aid in keeping well, as the germs 
often enter the body by way of the mouth. In some 
cities school children may have their teeth attended to 
free of charge, if their parents are unable to pay a 
dentist. A clean face and hands also help in keeping 
the germs out. 

How Contagious Diseases Spread. — The reason that 



DISEASES DANGEROUS TO PUBLIC HEALTH 237 

contagious diseases are so common is that they are 
carried in numerous ways. Many persons also are 
ignorant and careless in the matter. One of the most 
common ways of spreading diseases is through the air. 
On a dry windy day, clouds of dust may be blown into 
our faces. Since there may be many kinds of germs 
mixed with the dust, is it any wonder that sometimes 
we take diseases without knowing where they come from? 
Clean, dustless streets are a necessity in promoting 
the health of the public. Sometimes a person cough- 
ing or sneezing near us is a source of danger. 
Every one should hold his handkerchief before his face 
when coughing or sneezing. 

Water as a Carrier of Germs. — Impure drinking 
water has caused a great amount of sickness and ex- 
pense, and many deaths. Water may carry disease 
germs long distances. Cities and householders should 
take the greatest care to secure pure water and to keep 
it from being contaminated. When there is any question 
of danger from drinking water it should be boiled, and 
then cooled before being used for drinking. Sometimes 
a second boiling is necessary when the water is very 
dangerous. The diseases most commonly carried by 
water are typhoid fever, dysentery, and cholera. 

Food as a Carrier of Germs. — Food, especially milk 
and meat, has caused an enormous amount of sick- 
ness. The attempts to obtain clean food and milk will 
lessen the danger in the future. The utmost care and 
cleanliness in connection with the dairies, cows, milkers, 
and milk, will secure safe milk. Rigid inspection and 



238 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

the enforcement of health laws will help to keep foods 
clean and free from disease germs. 

Animals as Carriers of Germs. — It is known that 
animals may suffer from diseases, and cause the same 
trouble in persons. Any one eating the uncooked meat 
of animals suffering from certain diseases may have the 
same diseases. This is the reason for strict meat in- 
spection. It is also probable that tuberculosis may be 
carried from cows to men by meat, milk, butter, and 
cheese. Hence the need of laws and inspection to 
insist that all dairy cows shall be in good health. Insects 
are the means of carrying germs from objects or indi- 
viduals to other persons. Flies carry typhoid fever, 
and mosquitoes carry malaria and yellow fever. Oysters 
also may carry germs when they have been taken from 
polluted waters. 

Course of the Illness. — If a person takes a contagious 
disease it will run its course, although proper care and 
treatment may lessen the danger, and prevent serious 
results. If any one is exposed to the germs of a con- 
tagious disease, either in the air, the food, the water, 
or by animals, and if he is in the right condition, he 
takes the disease. He may not know it at the time. 
Then a certain length of time is necessary for the germs 
to increase in number in the body before the symptoms 
of the disease appear. This time is called the incubation 
period. As the germs grow they create a poison 
which causes the sickness. If the body is able to resist 
this attack of germs, the person gradually recovers. 

The Incubation Period, — The time from taking a 



DISEASES DANGEROUS TO PUBLIC HEALTH 239 

disease to the appearance of the early symptoms varies 
with different diseases from two days to two or more 
weeks. During this time, in many cases one may give 
the disease unconsciously to others. If a child has been 
exposed to scarlet fever or diphtheria, he should be kept 
away from other children until the disease has had 
ample time to show itself. 

Incubation Periods 

Chicken-pox, 14 days Pneumonia, 1-2 days 

Diphtheria, 2-8 days Scarlet fever, 1-7 days 

Influenza, 2-3 days Small-pox, 11-12 days 

Measles, 13-15 days Typhoid fever, 2-3 weeks 

German measles, 1-3 weeks Whooping-cough, 1-2 weeks 
Mumps, 16-25 days 

Reporting to the Board of Health. — In most of the 
states the law requires that every case of a contagious 
disease shall be reported by the attending physician or 
the householder to the Board of Health. This is very 
essential, so that the health authorities may properly 
isolate or quarantine each case. 

Quarantine. — Immediately the health officer posts 
upon the house a plain notice giving the name of 
the disease. He also serves a quarantine notice upon 
the head of the family. Usually all the members of the 
family who have been exposed to the disease are quaran- 
tined until the disease has had time to show itself. 
Persons are forbidden to leave or enter the quarantined 
house. The isolation may be more or less strict, accord- 
ing to the disease and the means of caring for the sick. 



240 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Disinfecting. — After isolating the sick the next step 
is to kill the disease germs that may be on any object 
leaving the sick room. This is disinfecting. The differ- 
ent materials that will kill germs and so are good dis- 
infectants are sunlight, dry heat, boiling water, live 
steam, carbolic acid, chloride of lime, washing-soda, 
formaldehyde, sulphur, sulpho-napthol, and many others. 
The choice of a disinfectant will depend upon the article 
to be disinfected, and upon the cost and the effect of 
the disinfectant. All white clothing from the sick room 
may be thrown into boiling water containing carbolic 
acid. Toys, books, and articles of little value are best 
burned. After recovery the entire room with its 
furniture must be fumigated with sulphur or formalde- 
hyde before it is used by any other person. Sunlight 
is one of the cheapest and most thorough disinfectants 
if the germs can be exposed directly to its action for 
half an hour. Most disinfectants are dangerous poisons, 
and should be so labeled and kept out of the reach of 
young children. 

School Attendance. — It is important that children 
suffering from contagious diseases should be kept out of 
school. Not only is the sick person excluded but also 
the other members of the family. Sometimes in tene- 
ment houses all of the families on the same floor are 
quarantined. Otherwise a large number of children 
would be exposed. In case of an epidemic it may be 
necessary to close the schools to prevent further spread- 
ing. The children are not allowed to return to school 
until some time after the home is disinfected and the 



DISEASES DANGEROUS TO PUBLIC HEALTH 241 

warning sign is removed. The exact time varies some- 
what in different cities. The school or health authorities 
would be glad to inform any one of the rules in this 
matter on applying to them. 

Quarantine Stations. — A very extensive system of 
quarantine is maintained by the United States Govern- 
ment to keep contagious diseases out of this country. 
Fifty medical officers are engaged at forty-four separate 
quarantine stations located at the chief ports of entry 
along the Pacific, Gulf, and Atlantic coasts. During 
a single year, 16,766 vessels and 1,433,134 persons have 
been inspected and 1603 vessels disinfected. 

The Quarantine of Ships. — The city of New York 
has one of the most complete and efficient quarantine 
stations in the world. As an ocean steamer from an 
infected port enters the Lower Bay, it comes to anchor 
off Sandy Hook. Here is located the lower quarantine 
anchorage, which is marked by yellow buoys and a ship 
moored for a floating station. The arrival is signaled 
to the main quarantine station six miles above on Staten 
Island, and soon a swift tug bears the quarantine officer 
down the bay. He examines all on board, passengers 
and crew, and the general condition of the steamer. He 
also calls for the bill of health. If all is well, the vessel 
continues on its course to the Upper Bay to land its 
passengers and cargo. 

The Quarantine of Persons. — If persons are dis- 
covered ill with cholera, plague, or certain other con- 
tagious diseases, they are removed to the hospital on 
Swinburne's Island in the Lower Bay. The persons 



242 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

who have been exposed to the disease are taken to Hoff- 
man's Island. Here their baggage is disinfected and 
they are isolated and detained a few days until the 
disease has had time to develop. If ill, they are cared 
for at the hospital. If no disease develops they may 
leave for New York City. The vessel and its contents 
must then be thoroughly disinfected. The main offices 
and headquarters of the quarantine station, situated 
on Staten Island, are equipped with disinfecting ap- 
paratus, laboratories, and many other facilities for 
this important work. 

Keeping Cholera out of the United States. — A strik- 
ing example of the prevention of the spread of disease 
from one country to another is the exclusion of cholera 
from the United States in 191 1. When cholera first 
appeared in Russia in May, 19 10, the Surgeon General 
was notified by the representative of the United States 
in Russia. He notified the officers at the various p*orts, 
both abroad and in this country, to be watchful and 
strict in enforcing the * quarantine laws. Immigrants 
who were bound for America from cholera-infected ports 
were detained for five days before embarking and their 
baggage was inspected. In addition the ship's surgeon 
was required to inspect all immigrants twice daily. On 
arrival at the port of entry the quarantine officer ex- 
amined each person and his baggage. If well, the 
immigrants were allowed to proceed on their way. 

Continued Oversight. — They were, however, still 
under observation. A destination card was made out 
for each immigrant by the quarantine officers, giving 



DISEASES DANGEROUS TO PUBLIC HEALTH 243 

the name, place of departure, and destination of the 
person. The card was forwarded to the Board of 
Health of the state where the person intended to live. 
The State Board forwarded the card to the local Board, 
who could do what was necessary for the protection of 




Disinfecting Clothing at a Quarantine Station 

Steam or formaldehyde gas is turned into the steel tubes containing wire cases of clothing 

the public. Only five or six cases of cholera developed 
outside of quarantine, and these were quickly handled. 
By efficient and thorough work at quarantine stations 
cholera was kept out of the United States. 



Summary. — 1. The contagious diseases are those most dangerous 
to the public health. 

2. Keeping well and strong and avoiding persons sick with con- 
tagious diseases are the best means of preventing sickness. 



244 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

3. Among the most fatal contagious diseases are consumption, 
pneumonia, diphtheria, typhoid and scarlet fevers. 

4. Children should be protected from children's diseases instead 
of being exposed to them. 

5. Contagious diseases may be spread by the air, by water, by 
food, by animals, and by being near the sick. 

6. Contagious diseases may be prevented by isolation and dis- 
infection. 

Questions. — 1. Why does not a person become ill as soon as he 
takes a disease? 

2. How long must children ill with contagious diseases stay out of 
school in the state where you live? 

3. What is the value of antitoxin in the treament of diphtheria? 

4. How do school-physicians and nurses prevent sickness? 

5. What precautions are necessary when a person is isolated on 
account of a contagious disease? 

6. What are some of the best ways of disinfecting? 



XIX. THE GREAT WHITE PLAGUE — 
TUBERCULOSIS 

God lent his creatures light and air, 
And waters open to the skies; 
Man locks him in a stifling lair 
And wonders why his brother dies. 

Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

What Tuberculosis is. — Tuberculosis is a very com- 
mon disease and causes a great amount of suffering all 
over the world. It has been called a plague because it 
has killed nearly as many people as the plagues of olden 
times. Unlike them, it is still silently, slowly, but 
surely, working all of the time. 

Different Forms of Tuberculosis. — Tuberculosis is 
a very old disease and many of its forms have been 
known under different names. Tuberculosis of the 
lungs, called consumption, is the most common form. 
Nearly nine tenths of all tuberculosis is consumption. 
Tuberculosis of the hip is called " hip-joint disease. " 
Tuberculosis of the glands of the neck is known as 
"scrofula." Both of these forms are found among 
children. There is also tuberculosis of the bones, of 
the throat, and of many other parts of the body. 

Cause of Tuberculosis. — It is caused by a germ so 
small that it can be seen only under a microscope. It 
takes 3000 of them, put end to end, to measure one inch. 
This germ was discovered in 1882 by the great German 

245 



246 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

physician, Dr. Robert Koch. The germ grows and in- 
creases in the human body, and destroys the part where 
it is located. It can only grow, however, under certain 
conditions. Darkness and dampness are absolutely 
necessary for its growth. Dryness, fresh air, and sun- 
light are unfavorable to it. Direct sunlight will kill the 
germs in twenty minutes. When these germs are able 
to gain an entrance into a delicate body, they grow 
rapidly, and the person has tuberculosis. 

What Tuberculosis Does. — Tuberculosis kills more 
people in the United States than any other single disease. 
Eleven per cent of all the deaths are due to this cause. 
In our country 150,000 persons or more die annually 
from this disease. This means that one death from it 
occurs in every three minutes. We talk of the terrible 
loss of life during wars, but have become accustomed 
to the great loss from tuberculosis. In the four years 
of our Civil War there were killed and mortally wounded 
from 155,000 to 161,000 men. This is not much more 
than the number who die annually from tuberculosis in 
this country. In terms of dollars and cents this means 
a great financial loss to the country. In New York City 
alone, it is estimated that the annual loss from tuber- 
culosis is $23,000,000. 

Who are Attacked. — The rest of the story is the sad- 
dest part of it. Consumption attacks neither the young- 
est nor the oldest persons. It attacks those from fifteen 
to forty years of age. Often it disables the breadwinner 
of the family. More than one fourth of the deaths 
occurring among young people are due to consumption. 







GREAT WHITE PLAGUE — TUBERCULOSIS 247 

The Early Symptoms. — It is very important that 
the early signs or symptoms of the disease should be 
well known. If the disease is discovered early and the 
proper treatment obtained, a large per cent of consump- 
tives recover their health. Every one thinks of a rack- 
ing cough when consumption is mentioned. In the 
early stage there may be very little 
coughing, with no expectoration. 
Growing thin, and losing the 
appetite and strength are early 
indications. Breathlessness when 
hurrying is sometimes present. 
Often a person has a flushed face 

and rise of temperature in the Consumption Germs 

afternoon. Perhaps he feels tired ^^Tu^Z^Z 
or run down. The only safe thing (From Huber7s Consum P tion > 
to do when a cough lingers week after week is to have 
the lungs examined by a reliable physician. 

A Contagious Disease. — Since the discovery of the 
cause of the disease, tuberculosis has been known to be 
contagious. By this we mean that one person can take 
the disease from another. It is not as quickly contagious 
as the measles or scarlet fever. But persons living in 
the same family with a consumptive are likely to take 
the disease unless proper precautions are taken. There 
is danger in using dishes, towels, and clothing of a con- 
sumptive. The other members of the family need to 
be protected in every way, or the consumptive should 
be cared for at a hospital. 

How the Disease is Spread. — Tuberculosis is usually 



248 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

carried in one of two ways. A person may inhale the 
germs or he may take food or milk that contains them. 
The sputum of all consumptives contains large numbers 
of germs. If these are allowed to dry they escape into 
the air and may be inhaled by others. The consump- 
tive should always hold a handkerchief before his 
mouth when coughing. He should be trained to use a 
sputum cup, damp cloth, or paper napkin. These 
should be burned or boiled before drying. A careful 
consumptive need not give the disease to others, but a 
careless consumptive is a real danger in spreading the 
disease. 

Laws Against Spitting. — Since tuberculosis is a very 
common disease, there is grave danger to the public. 
Many states have passed laws forbidding expectorating 
on sidewalks and in street-cars. These laws should 
include all public buildings and public places. Occa- 
sionally tines are imposed for the violation of these laws. 
But it is evident that the public must be educated to 
appreciate cleanliness and healthfulness before substan- 
tial results will be obtained. 

Spread by Food. — All food that is much handled 
during its preparation or sale is liable to contain the 
germs or become infected if there is a consumptive 
among the employees. So it is necessary to inspect 
bakeries and factories and all persons who work in 
them. All foods like bread which are handled in sell- 
ing should be wrapped in oiled paper. Impure milk 
has long been considered an important source of the 
disease, especially among young children. All farmers 



GREAT WHITE PLAGUE — TUBERCULOSIS 249 

furnishing certified or high-grade milk must have their 
cows tested for tuberculosis. Physicians are uncertain 
whether the tuberculosis of animals is identical with 
that of man. It is safest, however, not to use the milk 
of tuberculous cows, especially for young children. 

Conditions for Spreading. — There are many con- 
ditions favorable for the development of the disease. In 
poor houses, where the rooms are overcrowded, there is 
much tuberculosis. Sometimes poor food and defective 
teeth weaken the body so that it takes tuberculosis 
easily. The use of alcohol and a serious illness of any 
kind may also reduce the bodily strength. Certain 
occupations, like stone-cutting, cigar-making, and polish- 
ing where there is much dust, are likely to injure the 
lungs. 

Tuberculosis may be Prevented. — It is fortunate 
that all of the measures that tend to prevent tuber- 
culosis are those of a well-regulated and healthful life. 
Wholesome food, plenty of fresh air, cleanliness, and 
vigorous strength are safeguards against the disease. 
Persons should never sleep, live, or work in dark or 
badly ventilated rooms. All persons should be taught 
to keep their bodies in such physical condition as to 
enable them to resist the germs. The public must be 
instructed in the cause, prevention, and cure of the 
disease. 

How to Avoid Spreading the Disease. — More direct 
work should be done in removing the advanced and 
dangerous consumptives to hospitals, where they cannot 
give the disease to others. Every consumptive should 



250 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

be taught how to destroy his sputum and how to avoid 
giving the disease to his family, neighbors, and friends. 

The Work of Health Officers. — Every case of tuber- 
culosis should be reported to the Board of Health. If 
the disease is discovered and cured in the early stages 
it will not spread. All rooms should be disinfected 
after consumptives have lived in them. This is impor- 
tant, as experience has shown that the germs may 
linger in the wall-paper and cracks of a room and give 
the disease to others. 

Tuberculosis not Inherited. — Many persons think 
tuberculosis may be inherited by a child, but it is not 
so. A child may have weak lungs or a weak body on 
account of the disease of a parent. He may inherit a 
tendency to the disease, but not the disease itself. 
Among such children there are many who are sickly. 
When they are exposed to tuberculosis in the family 
they take the disease easily, sometimes before the 
parents know it. The children of tuberculous parents 
should receive special care until they are well and 
strong. 

A Curable Disease. — One of the most encouraging 
phases of the entire problem is that tuberculosis has 
been cured, and is being cured today. If consumption 
is discovered in its early stage, and the right treatment 
begun, the chances for recovery are good. Seventy 
per cent of such cases have apparently been cured, or 
the disease "arrested" or stopped. The cure of con- 
sumption depends upon plenty of fresh air, nutritious 
food, cleanliness, and rest. Taking a cure usually 



GREAT WHITE PLAGUE — TUBERCULOSIS 251 

requires one, two, or three years. A happy result often 
depends upon courage, patience, and perseverance. 

Treatment at Home. — The successful treatment 
depends upon securing the four essentials of fresh air 
and sunshine, nutritious food, cleanliness, and rest 
under the conditions of home life. The sunniest room 




Living in the Open Air 



of the house is given to the consumptive and is fitted 
up in the most sanitary manner. As little furniture 
as possible is used, with thin white curtains and a rug or 
two. These are easily cleaned and aired. 

Obtaining Fresh Air. — Every effort is made to be 
out-of-doors as long as possible, both day and night. 
During the day the patient may sit in a reclining 
chair on a piazza or balcony. He may be covered with 
furs so as to be comfortable in the coldest weather. 
It is a very common practice for consumptives to 
sleep out-of-doors at night. Sleeping balconies, tents, 



252 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

and shacks are often erected for this purpose. When 
these cannot be obtained window-tents may be used. 
Extra protection by mattresses, blankets, puffs, hoods, 
and sweaters keeps the patient warm. The most con- 
venient arrangement is to have the sleeping balcony 
open directly out of the chamber, which may then 
be used for dressing. Roofs of houses, backyards, 
piazza roofs, and many other protected places are used 
for sleeping out-of-doors. In the summer patients 
may stay out as many as sixteen hours of the twenty- 
four. 

Nutritious Food. — Fresh air alone will never accom- 
plish a cure. Plenty of nutritious, easily digested food 
must be taken to build up the strength. Most con- 
sumptives, at first, are thin and weigh less than they 
should. Three good substantial meals at eight, one, 
and six o'clock are usually not enough. Three or four 
lunches between meals are also given, until the patient 
gains his normal weight. Life in the fresh air creates a 
fine appetite. Milk, eggs, meat, vegetables, fruit, 
and bread and butter are heartily relished. 

Rest and Exercise. — The third necessity for cure is 
rest. At first absolute rest of body and mind is neces- 
sary. After recovery has begun, light reading, quiet 
games, and friends are permitted. Reclining in an easy 
chair is the daily occupation. Rest is essential to give 
the lungs an opportunity to recover. After a time, on 
the advice of the physician, the patient begins to exer- 
cise, and a very short walk in the forenoon is allowed. 
As the strength increases, longer walks and light occu- 



GREAT WHITE PLAGUE — TUBERCULOSIS 253 

pation may be permitted. Over-exercising has killed 
many consumptives. 

Cleanliness. — Warm baths for cleanliness should 
be insisted upon once or twice a week. It is also impor- 
tant to wash the hands before eating and to brush the 
teeth after eating. Cold baths are also used to harden 




At a Sanatorium 



the body against the disease. The bath increases the 
appetite, stimulates the body, and makes it easy to 
resist the cold and the changes of out-of-door life. 

Hospitals. — There are many hospitals or sanatori- 
ums in the United States for the cure of consumptives. 
The first state sanatorium in this country was built in 
1898, at Rutland, by the state of Massachusetts. Since 
that time fourteen other states have established hospitals. 
The charges vary in amount up to $7.00 per week. 
There are also many private sanatoriums for consump- 



2 5 4 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

tives located among the mountains and in the clear air 
of Colorado. Other hospitals are supported by cities, 
private associations, or religious societies. In the United 
States there are about four hundred special hospitals 
where consumptives only are received. 

Sanatorium Treatment. — In sanatoriums every op- 
portunity is offered the patients to recover. Plans are 
made for living in the open air, abundant food is pro- 
vided, and rest is insisted upon. Exercise is taken under 
the care of the resident physician. The time of each 
patient is carefully planned for him, from rising in the 
morning until retiring at night. Most of the patients 
gain health and strength, and this makes them happy 
and eager to help on the cure. 

Tuberculosis in Children. — Tuberculosis is common 
among children, yet many of them could be strengthened 
to escape the disease if they had the proper care. The 
well-nourished are not so liable to be attacked as 
delicate children. Open-air schools, playgrounds, excur- 
sions to the country, sanatoriums, and hospitals are all 
helping children to escape this disease. There are also 
exhibits which go from school to school to teach 
children how to avoid tuberculosis. 

Rules for Children. — i. Get plenty of fresh air; 
keep your window open at night, whatever the weather 
may be. 

2. Do not sleep in a current of air. 

3. Do not allow any one to kiss you on the lips. 

4. Do not stay near any one who has a cough. 

5. Do not spit. 



GREAT WHITE PLAGUE — TUBERCULOSIS 255 

6. Always hold a handkerchief over your mouth and 
nose when you cough or sneeze. 

7. Take a warm bath once or twice a week and a cold 
bath when possible every morning. 

8. Do not lie on the bed with a sick person. 

9. Avoid children who have any contagious disease. 
10. Do not put into your mouth things that others 

have had in theirs, 
such as whistles, spit 
blowers, chewing 
gum, and pencils. 
Do not bite from 
the same apple that 
some one else has 
been eating. 

The Cured Con- 
sumptive. — If the 
rest cure has been 
successful, the consumptive is apparently cured. This 
does not mean, however, that he is able to return to 
his former occupation under unfavorable conditions. 
Many consumptives have done this to their sorrow and 
have broken down completely. The cured consumptive 
must continue to live with care. In many instances he 
continues the habit of sleeping out-of-doors. Often he 
is unable to return to his former employment and 
must seek light work in the open air. Experience 
has shown that for two or three years the cured con- 
sumptive must live a most hygienic life if he wishes 
to retain his health. 



; eH^| 


1 


WiL ^8p 



A Simple Shelter for a Consumptive 



256 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

The Fight against Tuberculosis. — Throughout the 
civilized world to-day there is a great effort being made 
to fight tuberculosis. This international movement is 
sometimes called the "crusade" the "warfare" or the 
"struggle" against tuberculosis. The general methods 
are similar in all nations, but adapted to the habits of 
different people. An immense sum is spent annually 
to carry on the fight. In 1910 the sum of $15,000,000 
was spent in the United States for this cause. 

The Work of Hospitals. — The work of hospitals in 
the fight against tuberculosis is of two kinds. Some 
hospitals take only incurable consumptives. These are 
very important, for they prevent the consumptive from 
being the means of giving the disease to his family, his 
friends, and many others. Preventing persons from 
taking the disease is one of the chief means of suppress- 
ing it. Other hospitals take only the early and prob- 
ably curable consumptives. The persons cured at these 
hospitals are usually able to resume work and their 
places in the community. They become important 
centers in spreading information on the cure of con- 
sumption and on hygienic ways of living. 

The Tuberculosis Dispensary. — Many large cities 
maintain dispensaries for the recognition and treatment 
of tuberculosis. Here any one unable to pay for medical 
advice can be examined for tuberculosis without charge. 
If he is suffering from this disease, he is assisted by 
advice, treatment, or help to carry out a cure at the city 
or state hospital. There are nearly three hundred such 
dispensaries in this country. 



GREAT WHITE PLAGUE — TUBERCULOSIS 257 

Day-Camps. — Some cities and societies carry on 
day-camps for consumptives. A camp is usually located 
in the open country, but within easy reach of the city. 
It consists of a kitchen, a dining-room, an office, a rest- 




A Cottage Camp for Consumptives 

room, and many reclining chairs. The patients spend 
the day only at the camp, receiving two or three sub- 
stantial meals. Most of the time is spent resting in the 
sunshine. These camps have done much good among 
consumptives who have no place where they can sit 
out-of-doors at home, and who are able to stand the 
trip back and forth night and morning. 

Night-Camps. — The night-camp is especially helpful 
to the consumptive who has left the sanatorium as cured. 



258 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

He may be able to work in the city during the day, but is 
totally unfit to return to his crowded home. The night- 
camp is only for men who may go to the city every day. 
It consists of a dining-room, kitchen, and shacks open 
on one side, with accommodations for many men. 

Tuberculosis Classes. — It has been shown that it is 
possible to treat a group of consumptives while each 
one is living in his own home. The class is under the 
direct charge of a physician, a nurse, and friendly visi- 
tors. Once a week the members of the class meet, when 
the physician inspects them and gives them advice. 
The nurse visits their homes and helps them to obtain 
the necessities of fresh air, nutritious food, and a place 
for rest. The friendly visitor encourages them and 
helps them financially when necessary. 

Societies. — Since 1905 a National Society for the 
study and prevention of tuberculosis has been teaching 
the public about this disease. It has helped in the 
establishment of four hundred anti-tuberculosis societies 
in the United States. It has also sent out circulars on 
subjects connected with the cure and prevention of 
tuberculosis. There are also many other local societies 
doing a similar work. 

The Red Cross Society. — A department of the Red 
Cross Society is fighting against tuberculosis. The Red 
Cross stamps or seals issued every Christmas are excel- 
lent means of reaching the people and of raising thou- 
sands of dollars for the cause. The money from this 
source has made possible the establishment of the Red 
Cross Tuberculosis Camps in Cleveland and on the roof 



NATIONAL- 




GREAT WHITE PLAGUE — TUBERCULOSIS 259 

of the Vanderbilt Clinic in New York City. "Every 
stamp means a bullet in the fight against tuberculosis." 
At Christmas, 19 10, there were 40,000,000 seals sold 
throughout the United States. 

Traveling Exhibits. — A traveling exhibit on tuber- 
culosis is one of the best ways of educating the public. 
Such an exhibit consists of photographs, models, charts, 
and all kinds of objects that have to do with the preven- 
tion and cure of tuberculosis. Tents, 
chairs, and all possible aids are in- 
cluded. Such exhibits are owned and 
loaned by the Tuberculosis Societies 
and by State Boards of Health. When 
such an exhibit is set up in a hall in a 
large city and duly advertised, it is 
visited by thousands of persons daily. 

Educating the Public. — Lectures on tuberculosis are 
often given and lantern slides loaned in the attempt to 
spread knowledge of the prevention and cure of this 
disease. The help of the churches is sought through- 
out the country. Many preachers now set apart one 
Sunday or one meeting during the year for a sermon 
or lecture on this subject. 

Mottoes. — One of the easiest ways of reaching the 
public is by means of mottoes. These are printed on 
white cardboard and are posted in conspicuous places. 
Some of the mottoes read as follows: "Keep well and 
so resist tuberculosis," "Keep the body clean and a 
cheerful mind," "Worrying doesn't mend matters," 
"Take time for regular rest, exercise, and recreation." 



Red Cross Stamp 



2 6o HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Results of the Crusade. — This crusade has been of 
the greatest value in teaching the mass of the people the 
necessity of fresh air, nutritious food, cleanliness, and 
rest. It has helped to obtain better tenement houses, 
playgrounds for children, and many health laws. The 
result in the reduction of the number of deaths from 
tuberculosis is very hopeful in all civilized lands. About 
one half as many persons die of tuberculosis today as 
did fifty years ago. 

Summary. — i. Tuberculosis is a contagious and a curable disease. 
It may also be prevented. 

2. This is the most common disease in the United States. 

3. The early symptoms are a persistent cough, loss of weight, 
strength, and appetite, and a flushed face. 

4. Only a weakness or tendency to tuberculosis can be inherited. 

5. Tuberculosis can be cured if it is discovered early and the right 
treatment carried out. 

6. The essentials of the cure are fresh air and sunshine, nutritious 
food, cleanliness, and rest. 

7. The fight against tuberculosis extends all over the civilized world. 
It includes the work of hospitals, dispensaries, camps, classes, societies, 
and exhibits. 

Questions. — 1. What is the cause of tuberculosis? 

2. What harm does this disease do? 

3. How is consumption spread? 

4. What will help to prevent tuberculosis? 

5. How can persons obtain plenty of fresh air? Why are wholesome 
food and rest necessary for a cure? 

6. What is being done to help tuberculous children? 

7. What may all children do to avoid the disease? 

8. What are some of the results of the war against tuberculosis? 



XX. THE PREVENTION OF DISEASE 

"Prevention is easier than cure and far cheaper." 

Preventable Diseases. — All diseases that are caused 
by germs might be prevented if we could keep well and 
strong and could avoid the germs. But keeping the 
germs away is no easy matter. We may be able to 
avoid a few persons whom we know to be ill, but we are 
likely to meet others on the street, in the cars, at school, 
at church, at the theatre, and in any public place. 
Health authorities must do their part to secure the 
isolation of all such persons as are likely to spread 
diseases. 

Fighting Diseases. — The well-organized campaign 
against tuberculosis is, perhaps, the best known in the 
fight against disease. Much has already been done in 
the prevention of malaria, yellow fever, typhoid fever, 
and small-pox. In order to understand how these dis- 
eases may be prevented it is necessary to know some- 
thing of their causes and of their means of spreading. 

Malaria and the Mosquito. — Malaria is caused by a 

very small animal or parasite that lives in the blood of 

the afflicted person. One kind of mosquito, the marsh 

mosquito, carries this parasite from the sick to the well. 

In biting a person having malaria, the mosquito sucks 

in some of these parasites with the blood. Then, when 

it bites the well person, these parasites escape into the 

opening made by the bite. A person with malaria may 

261 



262 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



give it unconsciously to many others if mosquitoes are 
allowed to bite him. For the prevention of malaria, 
then, the measures must apply to the persons suffering 
with the disease as well as to the mosquitoes that may 
carry it. 

The Malaria Mosquito. — The marsh mosquito that 









1 ~ > ( 


( 






y J M" 




h "^t" 




AJ -$: Jft, 




V- ^r\ 




Mosquito Eggs and Larvae 

carries malaria is large in size and is found in the long 
grass on the margins of marshes, lakes, ponds, and 
rivers. The tiny eggs float on the surface of the water 
and soon develop into small larvae about one quarter 
of an inch long. These lie close beneath the surface, 
for they must obtain the air above for breathing. After 
a few days they change into another form called the 
pupa, identified by a very large head. After five or 
ten days changes take place within the pupa, and the 



THE PREVENTION OF DISEASE 263 

adult mosquito escapes from the empty skin. All of the 
early life of the marsh mosquito, then, is spent near the 
surface of water. 

Destroying the Mosquitoes. — The mosquito may 
be killed by destroying either the early forms or the 
adult. The fight against mosquitoes must begin by 
locating the places where they breed. A search in 




Pupa and Adult Mosquito 

stagnant water in malarial districts will usually show 
the larvae. Disturbing the grass near by will probably 
start up a swarm of mosquitoes. Whenever possible, 
low, wet places should be drained, and the long grass 
cut. Low places may sometimes be filled in with soil. 
Destroying the breeding places is the first and the most 
important measure in fighting mosquitoes. 

Oiling Ponds. — When it is not possible or desirable 
to drain a pond, the young mosquitoes may be killed 
while in the water. For this purpose kerosene oil is 



264 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

spread on the surface. The oil forms a layer on the 
top of the water and suffocates the larvae just below. 
It also destroys many mosquitoes which may be flying 
near the water, as well as the floating eggs. Oiling 
should be done every two weeks as the kerosene gradu- 
ally evaporates. 

Fish and Mosquitoes. — Another way of clearing a 
pond or lake of young mosquitoes is to stock it with 
small fish. Goldfish and minnows have proved useful 
for this purpose. These readily eat the young mos- 
quitoes and keep the pond free from them. This is a 
very useful method in small pools and fountains in 
gardens and yards. 

Avoiding Mosquitoes. — It may be possible and it is 
always desirable to select for a home a spot that is high 
and located some distance from marshy regions. No 
stagnant water should be allowed near any building. 
Proper drainage or the filling of the low places should 
remove the surplus water. Screening of windows and 
even verandas is usual and necessary if mosquitoes are 
abundant. Sleeping under mosquito nets is an addi- 
tional safeguard. 

Anti-Mosquito Laws. — Laws against breeding mos- 
quitoes are sadly needed in many places. This is cer- 
tainly as annoying and dangerous a nuisance as many 
others suppressed by law. Only one state, New Jersey, 
has made a beginning in this direction. Every one 
should know how to help in the work. Papers and books 
tell the story. Pamphlets upon the subject may be 
obtained from the National Government. 



THE PREVENTION OF DISEASE 265 

How to Suppress Malaria. — Malaria may be pre- 
vented in four ways. First, all of the marsh mosquitoes 
near dwellings should be killed, as these mosquitoes 
carry the disease. Second, the bites of all those mos- 
quitoes that carry malaria should be avoided. Third, 
all persons suffering from malaria in houses or hospitals 
should be screened, so that the mosquitoes cannot bite 
them. Fourth, the drug quinine should be taken. In 





Mosquitoes in Resting Position 

On the left the malarial mosquito (Anopheles); on the right the harmless mosquito (Culex) 
(From Howard's Mosquitoes) 

fighting malaria all of these measures are used, since it 
is impossible to carry out any one method thoroughly 
enough, with a large number of persons, to suppress 
the disease. In malarial regions mosquito brigades 
search for stagnant water, while health officers give 
quinine to every one who can be induced to take it. 

Fighting the Mosquitoes in Panama. — The extermi- 
nation of mosquitoes in Panama made the canal 
possible without enormous loss of life. The prevention 
of malaria and yellow fever in that district is one of the 
most notable recent triumphs of any government in 
this field. The French began to build the canal, but 



266 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

after a loss of 50,000 men they gave it up. In 1904 
the United States took over the administration of the 
Canal Zone and undertook to build the canal. Instead 
of rebuilding the French hospital, a chief sanitary officer 
was appointed to prevent the two diseases, malaria and 
yellow fever, that had been so fatal to the French. 
With 6000 men and $5,000,000 he started out to 
exterminate the mosquitoes near the dwellings and so 
make it safe to live there. The chief work has been done 
in draining all lakes and swamps and cutting the weeds 
from the margins. The grass of meadows is kept short 
within three hundred feet of all dwellings, which is as far 
as mosquitoes can fly. Kerosene is freely used on ditches 
and pools where stagnant water might collect. This has 
been followed by a careful house-to-house inspection to 
prevent as much as a pailful of stagnant water which 
might offer a breeding place for the mosquitoes. The 
houses also are screened to keep out the dreaded 
insects. The practice of killing any stray ones to be 
found within the houses is insisted upon. To enforce 
these measures a forty-five-mile strip along the line of 
the canal is under strict sanitary regulations and inspec- 
tion. Other health measures also have been intro- 
duced. These have all helped to make the Canal Zone 
a safe place to live in. 

In the United States. — The loss in this country 
annually from malaria is not less than $100,000,000. 
Measures for the extermination of the malaria mosquito 
have been carried on in many isolated places. Work on 
the largest scale has been carried on by the state of 



THE PREVENTION OF DISEASE 267 

New Jersey. A large part of the state has been mapped 
with reference to the breeding places. In all, 25,000 
acres of marsh land, including a shore line of nearly 
seventy miles, have been reclaimed by over 3,000,000 
feet of ditching. 

How Boys and Girls can Help. — In San Antonio, 
Texas, a panic seized the city on the discovery of a few 
cases of yellow fever. Efforts were started on a large 
scale to teach the school children and through them 
their parents about insects as car- 
riers of disease. Aquariums were 
fitted up in the schoolrooms, and 
the eggs, larvae, and pupae of 
mosquitoes were studied. Excur- 
sions were made to search for 
breeding places, and classes 
rivaled each other in trying to 
report to the Board of Health 
the largest number of such places. The m ° squito ™ at carmes 

t r Yellow Fever 

Lessons were given on the sub- 
ject, and papers were written by pupils. As a result 
there was a decided decrease in the number of mos- 
quitoes in San Antonio. While formerly there were 
from fifty to sixty deaths from malaria each year, at the 
end of the second year of this study there were no 
deaths from this disease. 

Mosquitoes and Yellow Fever. — Formerly yellow 
fever was a terrible scourge in the southern cities of the 
United States and in the tropics. The common house 
mosquito carries this disease from the sick to all those 




268 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

whom it is able to bite. This mosquito breeds in water- 
tanks, old bottles, tin cans, or any small pool of stag- 
nant water near the house. The chief preventive 
measures are to screen the water-tanks and houses, and 
to avoid even the smallest amount of stagnant water. 
The mosquitoes already in a room may be killed by 
closing the room tightly and fumigating it by burning 
sulphur or pyrethrum powder. Mosquitoes resting on 
the ceiling may be killed by using a shallow tin cup or 
cover. This is fastened to the end of a long stick, and 
is partly rilled with kerosene oil. To kill a mosquito, 
the cup is held close under it. When the mosquito 
starts to fly, it is caught in the kerosene. 

Results in Havana. — When the United States Govern- 
ment took over the control of Cuba, one of the first 
things it did was to make Havana a safe place to live 
in. The suppression of yellow fever in that city will 
always remain one of the greatest examples of stamping 
out disease. An efficient Sanitary Commission set to 
work to clean the city, to enforce new health regulations, 
and to establish mosquito brigades. Keeping stagnant 
water in yards was prohibited and punished with fines. 
As a result of such rigorous measures, Havana to-day is 
free from yellow fever. Formerly two persons died of 
yellow fever every day, while now there are scarcely 
two cases during the entire year. 

Simple Remedies against Mosquitoes. — Even when 
one is not exposed to danger, mosquitoes are very 
troublesome. Their bites poison some persons so that 
the spots become swollen and painful. Some simple 



THE PREVENTION OF DISEASE 269 

remedies are very successful in driving away mosquitoes. 
Screening doors and windows is the first precaution. 
When out-of-doors, burning any substance that produces 
a smoke will drive them away. In the house, pyrethrum 
powder may be blown into the air, or made into little 
balls and then burned. Several mixtures are useful 
to rub on the face, hands, or about the pillow at night. 
Oil of pennyroyal, citronella, or peppermint are helpful. 
The mixture that Dr. L. O. Howard, the well-known 
scientist, recommends is composed of one ounce of cit- 
ronella, one ounce of spirits of camphor, and half an 
ounce of oil of cedar. To stop the pain of the bite, moist 
soap, ammonia, or glycerine may be rubbed on the spot. 

The House-Fly. — Common house-flies are also carriers 
of disease. They may spread typhoid fever, tuber- 
culosis, and other diseases. They do this by carrying 
the germs from filth to food which is eaten by the 
person who becomes ill. The legs and body of a fly may 
carry thousands of germs at one time. The house-fly 
is known as "The fly that does not wipe his feet." 

Habits of Flies. — With the warm weather in spring, 
a few flies crawl out of the cracks of houses where they 
have been hiding all winter. A fly lays thousands of eggs 
in decaying matter like horse-droppings or garbage. In 
about five days white grubs appear, which develop 
brown, shining covers. After five days more a fly comes 
out of each brown case. There are many generations 
of flies in one season, which accounts for the swarms of 
flies. The largest numbers are seen from the middle of 
July to the middle of August. 



270 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

How to Exterminate Flies. — It is easier to prevent 
flies than it is to catch them after they have grown. 
Dirt, filth, decaying matter, and garbage should be 
removed from all houses, yards, streets, and vacant 
lots. The receptacle for garbage should be kept clean 
and covered at all times. Keeping every thing clean 
about a house is the best prevention. Flies may be 
kept out of houses by screening doors and windows. 
They may be caught with traps or sticky paper. All 
food should be kept away from flies and covered when 
not on the table. Food exposed for sale should also 
be screened and kept from flies and dust. If there is a 
nuisance in the neighborhood, notice should be sent to 
the Health Department which will have it removed. 

Flies and the Sick. — Flies should always be kept 
away from the sick, especially from those ill with con- 
tagious diseases. If they are allowed to stray into the 
sick room, their bodies and feet may become covered 
with germs. Kill every fly in the sick room. 

Typhoid Fever and the Cuban War. — During the 
Cuban War of 1898 typhoid fever killed more men in 
the army of the United States than bullets did. Within 
six weeks it developed in ninety per cent of the camps. 
Among the officers and men there were 20,738 cases 
with 1580 deaths. This means that one fourth of the 
soldiers had typhoid. Nearly nine tenths of all the 
deaths were caused by this disease. 

How the Fever Spread. — It has been clearly shown 
that flies were one of the chief means of spreading the 
germs or contagion. Flies were everywhere present, 



THE PREVENTION OF DISEASE 



271 



and went freely from the contagious material to the 
food while it was being prepared and served. After a 
while dust, bedding, clothing, and tents became infected 
and also helped to spread the disease. It is hard to 
believe that a government that has done such brilliant 




Life History of the House-Fly 

work in preventing disease should permit such a terrible 
loss of life. 

How to Prevent Typhoid Fever. — This disease has 
always been a menace to health whenever large bodies 
of men have lived in camps. There are now two chief 
ways to prevent it. All sanitary measures in regard to 
water, drains, food, bathing, and camp life must be 
enforced. This is of prime importance, especially in a 
permanent camp. In addition, experiments have shown 
that vaccination against typhoid fever will protect the 
person from taking the disease or will lessen its severity. 
During the encampment of the troops at San Antonio, 
Texas, in 191 1, many of the officers and men were 



272 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

vaccinated against typhoid fever. As a result there 
was very little of that disease in camp. Vaccination 
may prove as protective against typhoid fever as it has 
against small-pox. 

The Campaign against Flies — While flies have always 
been considered an annoyance, they are now regarded 
as a danger. Filth, flies, and persons are a deadly com- 
bination. The Merchants' Association of New York 
is conducting an active warfare against flies. It has 
shown that most of the typhoid fever of that city occurs 
in houses within a few blocks of the water-front, where 
filth abounds. The Association has issued pamphlets 
on the extermination of flies. Civic Associations, Life 
Insurance Companies, and Women's Clubs have circu- 
lated other pamphlets on the house-fly. In Florida, 
Georgia, Louisiana, and Kentucky, the anti-fly poster 
is sent out by the health authorities. New Jersey, 
Missouri, and other states require the screening of 
bakeries, restaurants, and groceries. In New York the 
stables must be screened. 

Rules of the Chicago Department of Health. — Screen 
all food and keep flies away from it. 

Keep the streets clean. 

Keep stable-manure — breeding place for flies — in a 
vault or pit or screened enclosure and sprinkle its surface 
with chloride of lime. 

Quickly cover up food after a meal and bury or burn 
table refuse. 

Keep damp cloths near meat dishes, milk jugs, and 
other food receptacles. 



THE PREVENTION OF DISEASE 273 

Burn pyrethrum powder in the house. It will kill 
most of the flies and those it does not kill will fall 
stunned, when they may be swept up and burned. 

Sticky fly-papers are a second-rate palliative. 

Remember that the exposure of any kind of refuse 
near a dwelling furnishes a breeding place for flies, and 
if food is exposed the flies will deposit germs upon it. 

An Epidemic. — When many people become ill with 
the same contagious disease within a few days or weeks, 
it is called an epidemic. Many contagious diseases 
occur in this way from time to time. One person be- 
comes ill and often unconsciously gives the disease to 
many others. 

Some Epidemics. — Epidemics of typhoid fever, diph- 
theria, and scarlet fever are sometimes widespread. 
They result in much sickness, many deaths, and some- 
times interfere seriously with business. There are on 
record 878 epidemics of typhoid fever alone in recent 
years, and this does not include them all. One epidemic 
occurred in Palo Alto, California, during which 232 
persons had typhoid. All but two persons used milk 
from the same source, which had been diluted with water 
polluted with typhoid germs. In Boston, during Janu- 
ary, 1907, 227 cases of scarlet fever broke out in four 
days. In 1907, 72 cases of diphtheria appeared within 
seven days in Hyde Park, Dorchester, and Milton, 
Massachusetts. Sixty-nine of these persons had taken 
milk from two milkmen who bought their milk from 
a farmer whose grandchild was ill with diphtheria. 
Without proper care one person may cause a large 



274 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

amount of sickness and trouble. As soon as an epi- 
demic of any disease occurs, it is the special duty of the 
Board of Health to search out the cause, and to prevent 
further spreading of the disease. 

Summary. — i. Much has been done in the prevention 
of malaria, yellow fever, typhoid fever, and small-pox. 

2. The marsh mosquito is the chief agent in the spread 
of malaria. 

3. Malaria may be prevented by killing the marsh mos- 
quitoes near dwellings, by avoiding their bites, by screening 
people suffering from malaria, and by taking quinine. 

4. The house-fly is an important factor in the spread 
of typhoid fever. It has been called the "typhoid fly." 

5. Many associations and health authorities are publish- 
ing pamphlets on the dangers of the fly. 

6. Epidemics of typhoid fever, diphtheria, and scarlet 
fever may cause many deaths. 



Foot of a 
House-Fly 

(Magnified) 



i. What insects are known to carry 



Questions. 

disease? 

2. Are there any breeding places for mosquitoes near your home? 
Where would you look for them? 

3. How may mosquitoes be exterminated near dwellings? 

4. Did you ever see the early stages of house-flies? 

5. How may flies be prevented? How may they be killed? 

6. Can you find out about an epidemic near your home, and what 
was done to stop it? 



XXI. THE SAFE CITY 

"You are responsible for the safety of others as well as yourself." 

Safety in a City. — When thousands of persons live 
together in a city, measures for their safety must be 
enforced. The public must be reasonably safe when 
in their homes, when at work, when in public places, 
and when going about. The health of the public must 
be protected at all times. Proper conditions for health 
when at work must be enforced. The public also 
expects protection from fire, from accidents, from 
burglars, and from violence. 

The Public Health Service. — There are many health 
officers and boards of health in the United States whose 
chief duty is to guard the health of the public. At the 
head of them all stands the Public Health and Marine 
Hospital Service, with Headquarters at Washington, 
D. C. The work of the service is under the direction 
of the Surgeon General of the United States and 
is divided into several departments. One branch 
guards the ports of the United States against con- 
tagious diseases through the quarantine and immi- 
gration stations. Persons suffering from cholera, yellow 
fever, small-pox, typhus fever, plague, and any loath- 
some disease that will interfere with earning a living 
are refused entrance to this country. A large immigra- 
tion hospital is maintained at Ellis Island, New York^ 
where about 8000 patients are treated during the year. 

27s 



276 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

One of the most important tasks done by the service 
is the investigation of certain diseases which may spread 
from state to state. Valuable work has been done on 
yellow fever in New Orleans and the plague in Cali- 
fornia. The Government maintains at Washington a 
Hygienic Laboratory where much of this study is carried 
on. Another important work is informing the public 
on health matters by means of printed pamphlets. It 
publishes five kinds of reports and bulletins, distributing 
over 365,000 copies a year. The Government operates 
also twenty-two hospitals on the sea, lake, and river 
shore. In these about 50,000 patients from the mer- 
chant marine are treated annually. 

State Boards of Health. — Connected with the 
national Health Service are the State Boards of Health. 
The Surgeon General at Washington meets yearly in a 
conference representatives from the State Boards of 
Health of all the states. A state board of health exists 
in nearly every state in the Union. Its chief duty is to 
advise local boards in all sanitary matters, such as 
epidemics, water and milk supplies, and pure food. 
It also solves some problems which concern the health 
of the entire state and which cannot be left to the 
control of individual cities. It makes inquiries into 
the causes and prevention of contagious disease and 
especially of epidemics. A laboratory may be main- 
tained for the examination and testing of food and 
water. It sometimes appoints members of local boards. 
County and township boards are also found in rural 
districts where the population is scattered. 



THE SAFE CITY 277 

City Boards of Health. — The members of the city 
boards of health are either elected by the voters or 
appointed by the mayor, the council, the county board, 
or the supreme court. Usually there is at least one 
physician on the board. The powers of the board are 
great and vary in different cities. Its chief duty is 
to enforce the sanitary laws. To this end it makes and 
enforces its own rules, which pertain to all health 
matters. The city board of health has many duties 
and a large force of helpers and inspectors. The 
health authorities have charge of the means used to 
prevent and control contagious diseases. The isolation 
of the sick, disinfection, ambulance and hospital service, 
and the production and distribution of antitoxin all 
come within its duties. Its officers inspect bakeries, 
tenement houses, laundries, and factories. Another 
important phase of its work is the abatement of 
nuisances, such as piles of ashes, old paper, rubbish, 
and garbage. The inspection of food, and the seizure 
of unwholesome or adulterated food is also carried on. 
The board keeps accurate accounts of the births and 
deaths within its city or town. It publishes and dis- 
tributes pamphlets of instruction on popular health 
subjects. In some states these duties belong to the 
state board, and in other states to the city board. 

Protection in a City. — The safety of the public rests 
in some cities with the Department of Public Safety, 
which is one department of the city government. In 
other cities this duty rests with several departments, 
such as the Police, the Fire, the Building, and the Street 



278 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Departments. In some of the larger cities there may 
also be a Committee of Public Safety, entirely separate 
from the government. Such a body of public-spirited 
men might well insist that the laws relating to the 
public safety be enforced, and could suggest and carry 
out new measures for safety. 

The Police Force. — In every city it is the chief duty 
of the police to maintain the peace and to protect the 
public. The police force often forms a small army, 
according to the size of the city. At the head of this 
large body of men is the Commissioner, with the Chief 
as the first executive officer. A city is divided into 
police districts in each of which there is a station-house. 

What the Patrolmen do. — The police that are best 
known to the public are the patrolmen who are seen on 
the city streets. Each officer has his own route or beat 
which he must patrol continuously. He must preserve 
order on the streets. His duties are many, but usually 
not very hard ones. He must know the business places 
on his post and the places where burglaries, crime, and 
fire are most likely to occur. He must report any 
public danger, such as a hole in the sidewalk or 
a fallen limb of a tree in the street. All of the streets 
must be kept safe for traffic. He must also report the 
details of any accident that may occur on his beat, and 
he must assist as far as possible any persons injured. 

Arrests. — The most important duty of a police 
officer is to arrest persons for theft, drunkenness, assault, 
picking pockets, and other misdemeanors. Sometimes 
much judgment is needed to prevent arresting innocent 



THE SAFE CITY 



279 



persons and subjecting them to inconvenience, annoy- 
and loss of time and money. If help is needed 



ance 



in making arrests, a patrol wagon with a squad of 
policemen is sent from the station. Arresting is often 
a very dangerous duty, and many policemen have been 
injured or killed in taking desperate persons. 




The Policeman 

Special Duties. — Policemen are assigned or detailed 
to many special duties. Reserves are held at each 
station-house, and a squad of police may be sent out on 
call at any time to assist a patrolman. A squad may 
also be sent to a fire. The police are often detailed to 
help the different departments of the city government, 
such as the Health Department. Nearly all large 
public meetings are policed by one or more men. 
Exhibits, shows, and public gatherings often need the 
services of the police. 



280 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

The Police Signal System. — At many of the public 
squares and street crossings throughout a city are 
located the iron boxes of the police signal system. By 
means of these each policeman communicates with a 
station-house at regular periods, usually once an hour. 
In this way he may call for a patrol wagon, an ambu- 
lance, or for assistance. This system also tends to 
hold the patrolmen up to their duties. 

The Detectives. — The detective force is a most 
valuable division of the police. If a murder has been 
committed, the detectives are set to work to discover 
the offender. If houses are broken into or set on 
fire, the detectives find the guilty persons. Often these 
officials do their work in plain clothes, so that it is hard 
to identify them. They work at night as well as during 
the day and are the special agents for searching after 
criminals. 

The Traffic Police. — The mounted police that patrol 
the business parts of a city belong to the traffic squad. 
They keep the crossings clear, keep the wagons on the 
right side of the street, keep the teams moving in the 
right direction, and in general enforce the traffic laws. 
An officer must be mounted on horse, bicycle, or motor- 
cycle to overtake and arrest persons trying to escape 
from the penalty of broken laws in wagons or automo- 
biles. Many an officer can tell of an exciting chase. 

Danger from Fires. — Since bells have ceased ringing 
for fires in cities, we are likely to forget the danger from 
fire. In New York City in one year there are as many 
as 20,000 alarms of fire. The smaller cities may have 



THE SAFE CITY 281 

300 or more alarms. These fires cause danger to life. 
When the Iroquois Theatre burned in Chicago 590 lives 
were lost. More than one factory has burned with a 
loss of 50 or 100 lives. In the great fire in San Fran- 
cisco, in 1906, 260,000 persons were made homeless. 

Loss from Fires. — It would be hard to estimate the 
entire loss from fire in the United States during one 
year. A few of the largest fires will show how great 
this loss is. In the San Francisco fire of 1906, 28,000 
buildings were burned at a loss of $400,000,000. In the 
great Chicago fire of 187 1, there were 17,500 buildings 
burned at a loss of $200,000,000. 

Causes of Fires. — Fires start in many different ways. 
Some are due to accidents or carelessness in handling 
fire, matches, and lamps. Defective chimneys and over- 
heated stoves and furnaces are responsible for many 
fires during the cold weather. Many fires are set by 
mischievous boys or malicious men. Any one who 
wilfully sets fire to the property of another should be 
found by the police and punished by the courts. Defects 
in gas-pipes and electric wiring are responsible for many 
large fires. Explosives have also caused numerous fires. 

The Extinction of Fires. — A large fire is a fearful and 
a wonderful sight. Fighting fires in large cities is done 
by men with special training. The fire department is 
one of the most important branches of the city govern- 
ment, and is under the charge of a fire commissioner. 

The. Force of Men. — The Fire Chief is the head exec- 
utive officer of the force, and commands at all of the 
large fires. In a large city he may have charge of as 



282 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

many as five thousand men. This force is divided into 
companies composed of captains, engineers, drivers, 
hosemen, and laddermen. In the smaller cities there 
are also call-men who attend to various other occupa- 
tions, but who respond to fire alarms. 

Fire Apparatus. — Each company of men lives at one 
of the many stations which are located in all the parts of 
a city. There may be as many as two hundred stations, 
and in New York no building is situated more than a 
mile and a half from some station. The fire apparatus 
includes fire engines, chemical engines, hose wagons, 
hook and ladder trucks, aerial ladders, and water 
towers. The horses are a very valuable part of the 
equipment. They are selected with judgment, trained 
for their duties, and receive the best of care. In some 
cities automobiles and power-engines are doing the 
work of horses. 

Fire Boats. — Most of the cities that have valuable 
property situated along the water-front of a river, lake, 
or ocean, have added fire boats to their equipment. 
A fire boat resembles a tug, but is finished in as stout and 
as fireproof manner as possible. It is furnished with 
powerful pumps, pipes, and nozzles, some of which can 
throw a stream of water five and one half inches in 
diameter. Water towers, chemical fire extinguishers, 
and fire-fighting tools, like axes, buckets, and ladders, 
complete the equipment. The river, lake, or ocean 
water is used for fighting fires. Fire boats are an in- 
valuable aid in fighting fires in vessels and on wharfs. 
They may even assist at fires on land within a mile of 



THE SAFE CITY 283 

the water-front, when drawn up beside the nearest 
wharf, by laying a line of hose from the boat to the fire. 
The Fire Alarm System. — Formerly in cities, and 
to-day in many towns, the call for help is sounded loud 
and long by ringing the nearest church-bell. In cities 
to-day a call may be sent by telephone to fire head- 




Modern Fire Engine 

quarters, or the alarm may be sent from an alarm 
box. The fire alarm system is a telephone system con- 
necting the headquarters with all the alarm boxes and 
with all the engine houses. In many cities there are 
no fire-bells to announce a fire and to give the number 
of the box, this being done entirely by electric signals. 
The Fire Insurance Patrol. — Often the damage from 
the water used at a fire may cause as much or even more 
loss than the fire itself. If a fire has started on the 
fifth or sixth story of a business block, the water that 



284 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

floods the lower stories may do an immense amount of 
damage. To prevent this the large insurance com- 
panies support fire patrol companies. A squad of ten 
or more men respond to alarms in the crowded districts 
of cities. They are dressed like regular firemen, but 
wear white rubber coats instead of black. It is their 
special duty to rush in and cover the furnishings 
and contents with rubber blankets before the regular 
firemen turn on the water. They are supplied with 
hooks, ladders, and other tools for breaking into burn- 
ing buildings. They are stationed at places similar to 
fire apparatus-houses. 

The Water Service. — Little can be done at a fire 
without a good supply of water. The water is usually 
taken from the city water-supply. Hydrants are placed 
at intervals on the sidewalks, and these connect with 
the water-mains in the streets. The fire engine connects 
with a hydrant, and by means of a line of hose forces 
the water to any desired place. Many large cities have 
a separate high-pressure service for fighting fires. This 
water is usually taken from a river, lake, or the ocean. 
Powerful pumps at a main station force the water 
through a separate network of pipes in the business 
section of a city. A hose attached directly to a high- 
pressure hydrant will throw a stream of water into the 
upper stories of the highest buildings. No fire engines 
are needed with this water service. 

Giving the Alarm. — After a fire breaks out, only a 
short time should be spent in trying to extinguish it with 
pails of water or hand extinguishers. As soon as possible 



THE SAFE CITY 285 

some one should ring in an alarm from the nearest box. 
Opening the door of the box does not give an alarm. 
Pulling down the hook once and releasing it starts the 
message over the wires to headquarters. Here the 
operator receives the number of the box sending in 
the alarm. He immediately gives the signal to all the 
companies that respond to fire alarms from that 
box. 

Answering the Alarm. — The small gong that rings 
the alarm in the engine house also stops a clock, that 
tells at what instant the alarm is received. By a me- 
chanical device it also releases the horses, which rush 
out of their stalls to their places under the hanging har- 
ness. The watchman snaps the harness together, while 
the men are sliding down the poles or climbing on the 
apparatus. In a few seconds from the time of the alarm 
horses and men dash out of the station to the fire. 

Fighting a Fire. — At a large fire in the crowded part 
of a city three or four engines, hose wagons, hook and 
ladder truck, aerial ladder, and water tower are all on 
the scene within a few minutes. A squad of fire patrol 
are already protecting perishable goods with rubber 
covers. An ambulance with a corps of surgeons is 
present in case of emergency. A squad of police have 
responded in a patrol wagon to assist in handling the 
crowd that always gathers. Finding the fire and 
drowning it out with water is often a very dangerous 
task. Firemen face many dangers from smoke, explo- 
sions, falling walls, and roo£s. Rushing into burning 
buildings and rescuing frightened persons is a common 



286 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

event. It takes courage, training, and skill to make 
a good fireman. 

Fire Escapes. — Much can be done to prevent loss 
of life in case of fire by supplying proper fire escapes on 
factories, schools, and office buildings, and on all other 
high buildings. A reliable fire escape consists of iron 
balconies with railings on each story and iron staircases 
leading from the balcony of one story to that of another. 
Many fire escapes have proved fire-traps because they 
did not lead to the roof and to the ground. The 
lower ladder should be so attached from the lowest 
balcony as to be ready for use at a moment's notice. 
Staircases also should lead to the roof to afford another 
means of escape upon the roofs of adjoining buildings. 
Laws provide that the fire escapes shall be kept free at all 
times from flower pots, chairs, boxes, and all other 
objects. It is especially difficult to enforce this law 
among the crowded tenement houses in large cities, 
where there is the greatest danger in case of fire. 

Valuable Safeguards. — The first five minutes after 
a fire starts is the most valuable time for fighting it. 
Many a large fire could have been prevented if water 
had been at hand when the fire was first discovered. 
Fire-buckets filled with water are a ready means of 
putting out a fire when it first starts. It is necessary to 
keep the buckets filled with water and to use them for no 
other purpose. Hand extinguishers are valuable in 
schools, hotels, and other large buildings. An extin- 
guisher consists of a metal holder containing chemicals 
and water. Inverting the extinguisher mixes the con- 



THE SAFE CITY 287 

tents and charges the water with a gas that will put 
out fire. Chemicals are especially useful at the begin- 
ning of a fire since it may then be possible to extinguish 
the fire without doing great damage from water. 

Other Precautions. — Many fires could be extin- 
guished with little loss if a hose were available ready 
for use when the fire was first discovered. Many large 
buildings have been equipped with reels of hose that are 
always connected with large water-pipes within the 
building. Automatic sprinklers are probably the most 
effective device in buildings for fighting fires. These 
are connected with a separate system of water-pipes 
extending throughout the building. These pipes are 
usually located near the ceilings. At short intervals 
along the pipes the sprinklers are located. Usually the 
openings are sealed with a metal that melts easily, but 
when a fire occurs the heat from the fire melts the seals, 
and the water pours down on the fire. Such a system 
placed on the outside of a building forms a curtain of 
water all around the building. This is a great protection 
from fires in neighboring buildings. 

Fire Drills. — Another precaution against the loss 
of life in fires is the fire drill. In all large buildings 
where many persons assemble every day fire drills should 
be compulsory. Every one should know just what to 
do in case of fire. In large factories some of the workers 
should be trained to use the hose and extinguishers 
until the regular firemen arrive. In many schools the 
pupils are taught to file out orderly and quickly, so that 
a building may be cleared of more than a thousand pupils 



288 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

within two or three minutes after the sounding of the 
fire gong. All of the occupants of a large building 
should be trained so that they will know how to leave 
the building in the least possible time. 

Fire Prevention. — An organized effort is now being 
made to prevent fires. In New York City a company 
has been formed on a business basis to prevent fires. 
It has men ready to send into factories, stores, offices, 
or any building to take charge of all measures relating 
to the prevention of fires. In a store such a man would 
organize and drill a fire company from among the 
workers. He would also recommend and locate the 
extinguishers and hose. He would see that the water- 
supply was sufficient and that the fire escapes were 
kept ready for use at a moment's notice. Men are ready 
to go to towns and villages to establish and drill local 
companies. In this way the work of preventing fires 
will extend all over the United States. 

Dangerous Occupations. — There are a few occupa- 
tions that will always remain dangerous. Seamen, 
soldiers, firemen, and divers must always be ready to 
face danger. Exposures to extreme heat, cold, smoke, 
water, and disease demand courage and pluck. The 
heroes of every-day life are not always as well-known 
as those of war. 

Unhealthful Occupations. — There are many occu- 
pations that are likely to cause certain diseases among 
the workers. Sometimes the danger comes from the 
general surroundings and sometimes from the nature 
of the occupation. Healthful conditions in stores, 



THE SAFE CITY 



289 



factories, and workrooms depend upon good light, 
both natural and artificial, sufficient ventilation, the 
proper regulation of heat and moisture, and upon safe 
sanitary arrangements. Neglect in furnishing proper 
surroundings may be due to ignorance, carelessness, or 
greed. 




Grinding on Emery Wheels 

Effective exhaust system for the removal of dust 

* 

Hygienic Surroundings. — In some factories the ut- 
most care is used to secure the most hygienic surround- 
ings possible. Lunch rooms and recreation rooms are 
furnished, and the outside surroundings are made attrac- 
tive with lawn and shrubbery. 

Danger from Dust. — The fine particles of dust pro- 
duced in manufactories cause a large amount of sickness. 
These small particles are inhaled by the workers, and 
weaken their lungs, so that consumption, asthma, and 
other lung diseases appear. The workers that are most 
subject to these diseases are tin miners, earthenware 



2 9 o HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

manufacturers, file makers, cutlers, quarrymen, cotton 
and wool operatives, and masons. 

Prevention. — There are several devices that may be 
used to prevent the workers from inhaling dust, The 
most valuable remedy is an exhaust system of ventila- 
tion in the factory, which sucks the dust away from the 
workers. Over the workbench of each person is a 
metal hood or guard connected by tubes to the rest of 
the system. The illustration on page 289 shows clearly 
the hoods placed over emery wheels where workers are 
grinding. It also shows how clear the air is from dust. 
Another device to prevent breathing the dust is called a 
respirator. This is worn over the mouth and nose, and 
is held in place by one or two straps passing around the 
head. It may be made of a wire frame and a piece of 
sponge or cloth to strain the air breathed, and to keep 
the dust from passing through. 

Other Safeguards. — In some trades in which the 
eyes are especially exposed workers wear large spec- 
tacles. A few trades are so dusty that helmets are 
worn, into which pure air is forced. In some trades 
the danger from dust that is composed of poisonous 
particles is very great. Workers in the manufacture of 
plumber's supplies, lead paint, the handling of type 
in printing offices, and the glazing of pottery are espe- 
cially liable to lead poisoning. In dusty trades especial 
care should be taken to insure the best ventilation that 
is possible under the conditions. 

Danger from Poisonous Gases. — There are some 
trades in which poisonous or irritating gases are given 



THE SAFE CITY .291 

off. In the manufacture of rubber cloth, patent leather, 
and other articles, the poisonous fumes of naphtha 
escape. These are particularly dangerous and difficult 
to guard against. 

Danger from Poisoning. — Among the workers who 
handle lead and the other poisonous metals there is 
frequent poisoning. The men exposed to this danger 
are painters, plumbers, pottery-workers, dyers, weavers, 
and many others. 

How to Prevent Poisoning. — Keeping the body in 
perfect health is of the utmost importance. Nutritious 
food, fresh air, and cleanliness are very necessary. 
When not at work care should be taken to remove all 
poisonous particles Especially before eating, the hands 
should be thoroughly washed. Factories need to be 
thoroughly ventilated to remove all of the particles 
in the air. 

Safe Surroundings. — We expect in a city reasonable 
protection from fires, accidents, dust, and unsanitary 
surroundings. We are usually safe whether at home, 
at school, at work, in public places, or on the streets. 
Our health is protected by laws which we, as good 
citizens, should help to enforce. 

The Healthful Home. — The individual homes make 
up the life of a city. A home to be healthful must be 
well-located, ventilated, warmed, lighted, finished, fur- 
nished, and kept clean and orderly. Moreover, when 
we live among other persons we should respect our 
neighbors and their rights. We must join with them to 
maintain an orderly and quiet neighborhood. We must 



2 9 2. HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

unite with all of the other citizens in making our city 
law-abiding, clean, healthful, and beautiful. We think 
of the house which we occupy as our immediate home. 
In a larger sense the city which we know and in which 
we live may be our larger home. 

Summary. — i. Boards of Health are the guardians of the public 
health. 

2. The safety of a city depends upon the police, the fire, the 
building, and the street departments. 

3. The efficiency of the fire department depends largely upon the 
fire alarm system, which connects with all of the alarm boxes and 
apparatus-houses. 

4. The high-pressure water service is of the greatest assistance 
in fighting fires in tall buildings. 

5. Many hundred lives have been lost through faulty fire escapes. 

Questions. — 1. What duties have you seen patrolmen do? 

2. How may policemen send messages to the station-house? 

3. How do fires start? 

4. What apparatus have you seen at fires? 

5. What are some of the dangerous occupations? 

6. Why are the dusty trades a menace to health? 

7. What are the safeguards commonly used to protect against dust? 



XXII. A NATIONAL EVIL 

"Our national expenditure on alcoholic drinks means 
more than wasted money. It implies an enormous mass 
of wasted health and of lost lives." 

Dr. Arthur Newsholme. 

Importance of the Drink Question. — The subject of 
intoxicants touches every one of us directly or indirectly. 
Liquors have been the subject of laws and taxes, and have 
played an important part in politics. In 191 1 the 
amount of intoxicating liquors sold in the United States 
was over 2,385,000,000 gallons, the amount having 
doubled in sixteen years. This means an allowance of 
twenty-five gallons for every man, woman, and child. 
As a large percentage abstain entirely, the drinkers must 
be responsible for more than this allowance. 

The Magnitude of the Liquor Traffic. — The manu- 
facture and sale of intoxicants were among the great 
industries of this country. The total capital invested in 
the liquor interests in the United States was more than 
$2,000,000,000. In 191 1 the total government revenue 
from alcoholic liquors was $219,597,685. There were 
256,521 proprietors of establishments dealing in liquors, 
and their employees numbered many more. It was 
estimated that at least 2,000,000 individuals were sup- 
ported by the liquor traffic, including the production of 
materials and the transportation of the products. 

A Cause of Insanity, -r- Alcohol works the greatest 

293 



294 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

damage to the brain. It may weaken the will or the 
moral powers. With extreme use, a person may become 
feeble-minded or insane. It is estimated that from 
twenty-five to thirty per cent of all the insane patients 
in asylums in the United States owe their misfortune 
to the use of liquor. The support of these unfor- 
tunates is a great expense to the Nation. Nearly every 
large city and every state maintains an asylum for them. 

A Cause of Crime. — Since the abuse of alcohol im- 
pairs the moral sense, the judgment, and the will, it 
naturally incites men to break laws and to commit 
crimes. A study of the criminals confined in our jails, 
prisons, and workhouses has shown how many were 
reduced to their unfortunate condition through the use 
of intoxicants. The investigation of the Massachu- 
setts Bureau of Labor Statistics showed that eighty-four 
per cent of all criminals confined in the correctional 
institutions of that state owed their downfall to intem- 
perate habits. Excluding drunkenness and disorderly 
conduct, alcohol was still responsible for fifty per cent 
of all the crimes. The Committee of Fifty, a body of 
able scientific men who investigated the liquor problem, 
studied the records of over thirteen thousand convicts 
scattered throughout twelve states. They found that 
alcohol was responsible for about half of them. To 
intoxicants must be charged a large part of the support 
of police systems, criminal courts, jails, prisons, and 
reformatories. 

Poverty and Alcohol. — The daily expense of ten, 
twenty-five, or fifty cents drains a man's pocket as well 



A NATIONAL EVIL 295 

as his health. The results of scientific study show that 
fifty per cent of the paupers in almshouses had been 
brought to their condition by the use of liquor either by 
themselves or by their parents. Thousands of dollars 
are annually given by the numberless charity societies 
for the relief of the poor. In addition, cities and states 
support almshouses and reformatories. 

Destitute Children. — Some of the most pitiful 
results of intemperate habits are seen in the condition 
of the children who are either neglected or deserted by 
their parents. It is estimated that in this country 
about sixteen thousand children are annually deserted. 
There is a still larger number who need the friendly 
services of societies for the prevention of cruelty to 
children. The Committee of Fifty discovered that 
nearly forty-five per cent of these children owed their 
destitution to the intemperance of parents or guardians. 

Temperance Reforms. — Alcohol has not worked 
havoc in this country without great opposition. Tem- 
perance agitation has been one of the most remarkable 
movements in society for over a century, and has called 
forth many unselfish and enthusiastic workers. Papers 
have been published devoted to the cause, and other 
literature has been distributed all over the country. 
From time to time noted lecturers have appeared, filled 
with zeal and fervor. John B. Gough, a reformed drinker, 
was long the most brilliant and famous speaker on the 
temperance platform. He was a powerful orator, and 
could move an audience to laughter or tears. The 
preachers of every sect and denomination have always 



296 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

taught and usually practised temperance. Meetings, 
lectures, and conferences have been held to further the 
cause. Moral suasion has long been regarded as the 
powerful ally to temperance. 

Temperance Societies. — In every state, temperance 
societies have worked for the cause. As long ago as 
1850, a great temperance wave swept over this country, 
and Washington Temperance Societies were established. 
In every state, thousands signed the pledge. Some 
of our greatest men, like Abraham Lincoln, have added 
their influence to the temperance cause. The influence 
of Lincoln's mother, who died when he was but nine, 
was never effaced. Three things she had impressed 
upon him: never to tell a falsehood; never to use 
profanity; and never to taste liquor. Later, a great 
Temperance Legion, including hundreds of thousands 
of persons who had signed the pledge, bore his 
name. 

Prohibition. — Formerly, moral suasion was the chief 
weapon; now the law has been called upon to aid the 
cause. Gradually, state after state has voted against 
the liquor traffic. Before the United States had joined 
the World War in 191 7, sixty per cent of the people of 
the United States were living under prohibition. This 
included over eighty-seven per cent of the total area of 
this country. By January, 1920, the inhabitants of 
thirty- three states, the District of Columbia, Alaska 
and parts of the other fifteen states were enjoying pro- 
hibition laws. Maine and Kansas were the two pioneer 
prohibition states. 



A NATIONAL EVIL 297 

General Wood and Prohibition. — General Leonard 
A. Wood, formerly in charge of Camp Funstan, Kansas, 
made the following statement regarding Kansas boys 
who enlisted in the army: 

"I find that Kansas boys and men grade far higher in 
morals, obedience, and stamina than the men of other 
camps. The discipline is the best I have ever seen. 
We attribute this to prohibition in Kansas. These 
boys were brought up in a clean atmosphere — they 
started right. Tell the Kansas people for me that they 
have the finest, the cleanest, the healthiest, and the 
most vigorous soldiers in point of endurance we have ever 
seen. The official records show this." 

National Prohibition. — When the United States 
joined the World War, all of the available man-power and 
money was needed to win the cause. So the war-time 
prohibition was passed and went into effect July 1, 191 9. 
In this way, the fifteen states in which liquor had been 
sold became prohibition states. As a war measure, 
the entire nation lived under prohibition for six months. 
National prohibition became more permanently estab- 
lished through the passage of the 18th Amendment to 
the Constitution of the United States. This went into 
effect on January 17, 1920. 

Prohibition and Children. — Although it is very 
difficult to enforce prohibition everywhere, many chil- 
dren are feeling the good results of it. Part of the money 
that was formerly spent on alcoholic drinks now helps 
to support the home and family. The children now 
have happier homes, better care, and less cruel treat- 



298 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

ment. They also have better and more clothing. 
Higher priced groceries and more abundant food are 
provided. Money is spent more liberally for health, 
recreation, and vacations. A larger amount of money 
than formerly is put away in the savings banks for 
future use. The family has fewer bills and debts. 

Prohibition and the School. — Prohibition helps chil- 
dren to obtain an education. The attendance at school 
is more regular and scholarship is higher. There is a 
brighter and more helpful spirit among the children, 
their parents, and the neighborhood. The children are 
healthier, cleaner, more respectful, and more earnest. 
The boys and girls, who formerly were obliged to go 
to work, are now able to remain longer in school. Con- 
tinuation and high schools have become more popular. 

Other Results of Prohibition. — The greatest bene- 
fits have been to the drinkers themselves. Men have 
been changed from habitual drinkers to sober, working, 
law-abiding men. Homes have been made happy and 
even reestablished. Arrests for drinking in Massachu- 
setts, alone, have been reduced about seventy-five per 
cent. Arrests of all kinds have been reduced one-half. 
This has relieved the courts of a large amount of work 
and expense. A decrease of sixty-five per cent of the 
work of the county jails and homes of correction has 
resulted. In seven large cities, the average of total 
deaths from alcoholism per month fell from fifty to 
seven. The great saving in human suffering, number 
of deaths, and amount of money can hardly be esti- 
mated. 



A NATIONAL EVIL 299 

Summary. — 1. Intemperance is one of the great social problems 
of the day. 

2. In the liquor traffic, about two million persons were interested 
and two billion dollars were invested. 

3. Alcohol formerly caused about thirty per cent of the insanity 
found in asylums. 

4. About eighty-four per cent of all criminals owed their downfall 
to intoxicants. 

5. The liquor problem affects thousands of children who are ne- 
glected by their parents. 

6. National prohibition became operative on January 17, 1920, 
through the 18th Amendment to the United States Constitution. 

Questions. — 1. Why is intemperance a national evil? 

2. What are some of the societies that help deserted children? 

3. How have children profited by prohibition? x 

4. What has taken the place of the saloons? 

5. Are men still able to obtain alcoholic liquors? 

6. Why is prohibition hard to enforce? 



XXIII. THE HEALTH CAMPAIGN 

"The greatest asset of any nation is the good health of its citizens. 

"Every one who would like to see the United States continue its 
progress can do a patriotic service by keeping well. It is the very corner- 
stone of happiness, prosperity, and contentment." 

Carter Glass. 

The Health Campaign. — One of the most striking 
lessons taught by the World War was the value of 
good health. It was made clear to thousands in this 
country, that to be useful they must be healthful and 
physically fit. The correction of physical defects among 
soldiers, the medical inspection of school children, and 
the clinics for babies have all been a part of a great 
campaign for better health. As Rupert Blue, formerly 
Surgeon General of the United States Public Health 
Service, has said, "Every one of us has a part in the 
public health. To ourselves and our families we owe 
the duty of keeping in the best possible physical con- 
dition; to our community and Nation we owe the duty 
of helpful cooperation to improve and conserve the 
health of those about us." 

Lessons of the World War. — When this country 
entered the World War, thousands of young men were 
examined physically and mentally for service in the 
army and navy. It was a great shock to this Nation to 
learn that nearly one third of the young men in the 
prime of life were suffering from defects, some caused 

300 



THE HEALTH CAMPAIGN 301 

by ignorance and carelessness, many of which might 
be remedied. The records show that from thirty to 
fifty per cent of the men who registered under the draft 
were rejected on account of physical defects. 

An Important Discovery. — This condition had de- 
veloped during the time of peace. In about one quarter 
of the states, seventy to eighty per cent of the men 
examined were accepted. These states were Texas, 
New Mexico, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, 
Iowa, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Minnesota. 
They are agricultural states. In another quarter of 
the states, sixty-five to sixty-nine per cent of the men 
passed the tests. These states were Louisiana, Florida, 
Mississippi, Alabama, North Carolina, Missouri, Illi- 
nois, Indiana, Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland, Wis- 
consin, and Montana. In another quarter of the states, 
only sixty to sixty-four per cent of the men were fit. 
These states were Utah, Nevada, Oregon, Idaho, Georgia, 
South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and 
New Jersey. The remaining states sent from fifty to 
fifty-nine per cent of their registered men. These states 
had a manufacturing population, or in the West, in- 
cluded many invalids from all over the country. These 
states were Arizona, California, Colorado, Washington, 
Michigan, New York, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, 
Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Del- 
aware. Country boys made better records than city 
boys. 

Condition of School Children. — This unfortunate 
condition of the young men caused anxiety about the 



3 o2 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

boys and girls still in school. The people naturally 
asked, "What is the condition of the school children? 
What can be done to prevent and remedy their physical 
defects?" Many large cities made health surveys of 
of the school children. From these, it was estimated 
that seventy-five per cent of the children were in need 
of attention on account of retarded development or 
physical defects. 

Over 50 per cent had defective teeth. 

Over 30 per cent had enlarged tonsils or adenoids. 

Over 25 per cent were suffering from malnutrition. 

Over 25 per cent had defective vision. 

Over 5 per cent had impaired hearing. 

About 5 per cent had spinal curvature, flat foot, or other deformity. 

About 5 per cent had tuberculosis of the lungs. 

About 2 per cent had heart disease. 

Many cities began to remedy these startling conditions 
and are still working at the problem. 

Child Welfare. — How can a child become happy, 
strong, and vigorous? We have come to see that the 
physical education of a child should consist of three 
different parts. First, a child needs every opportunity 
to grow normally. Athletics, swimming, rowing, winter 
sports, and gymnastics are all helpful. Gardening, play- 
ground games, camping, and scouting are beneficial. 
Many health clubs and organizations, as the Boy and 
Girl Scouts, offer a valuable opportunity for self de- 
velopment. Second, children need to be protected 
from communicable diseases and prevented, if possible, 
from developing physical defects. Any existing defects 



THE HEALTH CAMPAIGN 303 

should be early recognized and corrected. This may 
be done through the medical inspection of schools. 
Third, children need to be taught how to live health- 
fully and helped to form good habits of living. This 
can best be accomplished through the cooperation of 




Tooth Brush Drill 

the home, the school, and the boy himself. Special 
training in the nutrition class, the tooth brush drill, 
the open air class, and other exercises may be of great 
help. 

The Boy Scouts. — What live American boy does not 
know all about the Boy Scouts? How does scouting 
help boys physically? It gives them many opportuni- 
ties in camping, hiking, swimming, and sports to develop 
character, muscle, nerve, and endurance. A scout takes 
the oath, "To keep myself physically strong, mentally 



3°4 



HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 



awake and morally straight." One of the scout laws 
is, (i A scout is clean. He keeps clean in body and 
thought, stands for clean speech, clean sport, clean habits. 




Boy Scout 



and travels with a clean crowd." Out of the fifty-eight 
different subjects for intensive study, swimming, per- 
sonal hygiene and public health are the most popular. 
In 191 7, over twenty-seven per cent of scouts qualified 
in these subjects as first class scouts. A scout learns the 



THE HEALTH CAMPAIGN 305 

laws of health and how to take care of himself. It 
gives a boy a chance to keep physically fit. Scouting 
makes boys into men. 

The Girl Scouts. — Over 40,000 girls scattered all 
over the United States can testify to the value of the 
scout organization. Health knowledge is one of the 
four essentials to become a tenderfoot scout. There 
are scout merit badges to be won for first aid, athletics, 
child care, cookery, cycling, gardening, personal health, 
home nursing, swimming, and other subjects closely 
connected with health. Camping and hiking offer 
unusual opportunities to become strong and vigorous. 
Many girls have thus had their first experience in living 
in the open and enjoying birds, flowers, and the great 
out-of-doors. 

On the Trail 
Oh! this is the song we sing, as the gay Girl Scouts go marching, 
Away on the trail we swing, with heaven over-arching, 
As up, up, up the hill we climb, and down, down, down again, 
Our hearts are happy all the time, and we step to the gay refrain, 
Marching on I Marching on! Marching on through rain or sunshine! 

From Campward Ho. 

The Camp Fire Girls. — One of the laws of the camp 
fire is to "Hold on to health." Wohelo is the watch- 
word, which is made up of the first two letters of work, 
health, and love. 

Camp Fire Girls are of three ranks: wood gatherers, 
fire makers, and torch bearers. Weekly meetings help 
girls toward new activities and achievements. Honors 
are awarded for attainment in personal hygiene and 



306 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

first aid. Elective honors may be attained in health- 
craft which includes first aid, regularity, proper diet, 
sleep, games, swimming, diving, paddling, rowing, skating, 
snowshoeing, tramping, and other sports. Summer 
camping is the great opportunity of the Camp 
Fire Girls. 

The value of health is emphasized in part of the 
"Fire Lighting Ceremony." "We hold on to health, 
because through health we serve and are happy. 
In caring for the health of our persons we are caring 
for the very shrine of the Great Spirit." 

The Medical Inspection of Schools. — The preven- 
tion of communicable diseases together with the dis- 
covery and correction of physical defects and other 
causes which prevent the normal development of chil- 
dren are the chief aims of the medical inspection of 
schools. This is so important, that over fivt hundred 
large cities in the United States have established this 
work in their schools. About thirty-four states have 
departments of child hygiene or welfare which also 
help. School physicians, nurses, dentists, and teachers 
cooperate with the parents for the better health of the 
children. Valuable results have already been obtained 
in reducing the number of absences for sickness and in 
correcting defects so that children are able to make 
their normal gain in weight and height. 

The School Physician. — The responsibility for the 
health of the school rests chiefly on the school physician. 
He examines every child under his care at the beginning 
of the school year. Each child is weighed and measured, 



THE HEALTH CAMPAIGN 



307 



and the results compared with a standard for his age. 
Under weight is one of the sure signs of malnutrition. 
The physician is on the lookout for all children who 
show signs of retarded growth, or have defects in sight, 
hearing, teeth, tonsils or have adenoids. Deformed 
spines and feet and troubles of the skin are also 
detected. The monthly inspection may reveal the early 




Medical Inspection in School 

stages of measles, scarlet fever, and other communicable 
diseases in children. These children are sent home and 
the Board of Health is notified. In the daily or semi- 
weekly inspections, the physician examines any children 
sent to him by the nurse or teachers. We must all 
cooperate with the school physician and the Board of 
Health to prevent epidemics. 

Vaccination. — Vaccination against smallpox may be 
one of the duties of a school physician. Smallpox is a 



3oS HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

very loathsome, dangerous, communicable disease which 
usually leaves a person " pock-marked' ' for life. Vac- 
cination is a method of prevention against smallpox. 
That vaccination does prevent the spread of smallpox is 
a matter of history. In seven provinces of the Philip- 
pine Islands there were annually 6,000 deaths from 
smallpox alone. In 1916, measures were taken to stamp 
out this disease and 3,100,000 persons were vaccinated. 

The following year, instead of 6,000 deaths from 
smallpox, there was not one. 

Vaccination not Dangerous. — After vaccination, a 
small pimple appears, remains for twelve to fourteen 
days, after which the redness and swelling gradually 
disappear. Vaccination should be carefully done by 
a physician with fresh material which has been prepared 
under special precautions by the Government. When 
properly cared for, vaccination is no more dangerous 
than any pin scratch on the skin. During 19 18 and 19 19, 
over 3,000,000 persons were vaccinated in this country 
without a single death. It is a law, although not very 
well enforced in some states, that every child must be 
vaccinated before attending school for the first time. 
On exposure to smallpox, you should be vaccinated at 
once unless you have been vaccinated within the last 
five years or have already had smallpox. 

The School Nurse. — The school nurse is the lookout 
always on the watch for disease. At the regular, daily 
school inspections, she examines the eyelids, throat, 
teeth, skin, and hair of each pupil. After the visit of 
the physician, the nurse carries out his orders with 



THE HEALTH CAMPAIGN 309 

treatment or instruction to the children. In emergen- 
cies, as accidents, fainting, cuts and burns, the services 
of the nurse are very helpful. The nurse is the most im- 
portant link between the school and the home. When 
a child has a serious defect, the parents should give the 
necessary care and correction. It is the nurse who 
explains the condition and advises the parents. With 
the consent of the parents, children may be taken, when 
necessary, to hospitals or dispensaries for treatment. 

The School Clinic. — The school clinic is the physi- 
cian's office. It is a room supplied with running water, 
a table, chairs, a pair of scales, and a few medical appli- 
ances and remedies. Generally clinics are painted white, 
fitted with white furniture, and kept scrupulously clean. 
In them, the school physicians make physical exami- 
nations; children may be weighed and measured; 
nutrition classes may meet ; and individual health charts 
are kept on record. 

Other Clinics. — There are also special clinics. The 
object of the dental clinic is to insure sound, clean teeth 
to all children. The use of the tooth brush is taught in 
a practical way by tooth brush drills. In the eye clinic, 
children with poor vision are fitted with glasses. Then 
they are better able ? to compete with children with 
normal sight. The cause of mouth-breathing and deaf- 
ness is determined and, if possible, is remedied. This is 
sometimes due to the growth of adenoids or to diseased 
tonsils. In posture clinics, slight curvatures in the spine, 
round shoulders, and flat feet are detected. Children 
are trained in prescribed exercises which help or correct 



3 io HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

their handicaps. In speech clinics, stammerers and 
stutterers are aided to overcome their impediments. 

The Health Record. — A clean bill of health is an 
asset for every boy or girl. The health record should 
be added to the school report card to make a com- 
plete report of the progress of each pupil. Steady 
gain in weight and height, and the formation of good 
health habits are important to earn high marks in 
studies. The health record should show the results of 
physical examinations and attacks of child's diseases. 
It should also show how defects have been remedied 
or cured. 

Malnutrition. — It is estimated that about one third 
of all children are underweight for their age. That is, 
they are behind their grade in growth or are malnour- 
ished. This applies to all children; the city child and 
the country child, the rich and the poor alike. What is 
the cause of this condition? Malnutrition may be due 
to physical defects, overfatigue, insufficient or improper 
food, unfortunate conditions at home and many other 
causes. Malnutrition may be easily remedied when the 
causes are known and the proper remedies are applied. 
The first step is to weigh all school children and to select 
those that are underweight for special treatment. The 
next step is to determine, if possible, by physical ex- 
amination the cause of malnutrition in each child. 

The Nutrition Class. — Each child must do his part 
in the effort to gain weight. Any child whose weight is 
more than seven per cent below the average for his height 
is considered malnourished. In the nutrition class, 



THE HEALTH CAMPAIGN 311 

conditions are made favorable, as far as possible, for 
each child to gain. Physical defects, when present, are 
corrected. Provision is sometimes made for food in 
the middle of the forenoon as well as a hot mid-day 
lunch. Often a rest period is arranged in the middle 
of the day. Instruction is given and insisted upon for 
sleeping with open windows at night and regularly eating 
proper food at home. Individual health records are kept 
and if improvement is not constant, the cause is inves- 
tigated. When a child is in earnest and has the co- 
operation of the home, a remarkable gain in health may 
be accomplished in a few weeks. 

The Average Weight. — The average weight for the 
age has been estimated by weighing many thousands 
of children. The standard heights and weights for 
children from 10-16 years are given in the table below. 



Table of Weights and Heights of Children 



Ages 


Boys 


Girls 


Height 


Weight 


Height 


Weight 


10 yrs. 

11 yrs. 

12 yrs. 

13 yrs. 

14 yrs. 

15 yrs. 

16 yrs. 


Inches 
5i-7 
53-3 
5S-i. 
57-2 

59-9 
62.3 
65.0 


Pounds 

65-3 
70.2 
76.9 
84.8 
94.9 
107. 1 
1 21.0 


Inches 
5i-3 
53-4 
55-9 

58.2 

59-9 
61.1 
61.6 


Pounds 
62.4 
68.8 

73.3 

88.7 

08.4 

106. 1 

112. 



— From Children's Bureau, United States Department of Labor 



312 HEALTH IN HOME AND TOWN 

Health Habits. — After a child has reached his normal 
weight he should be ambitious to continue to grow. 
A relapse into former bad babits of eating, sleeping, 
resting, or injurious practices will result in arrested 
growth. The time to acquire proper habits of hygiene 
are during school life. If a child is well and is trained 
in good health habits before he is eighteen years of age, 
he has a good start in life. Are you living up to these 
requirements suggested by the United States Bureau of 
Education? 

A full bath more than once a week. 
Brushing the teeth at least once every day. 
Sleeping long hours with windows open. 
Drinking as much milk as possible, but no coffee or tea. 
Eating some vegetables or fruit every day. 
Drinking at least four glasses of water a day. 
Playing part of every day out of doors. 
• A bowel movement every morning. 

Summary. — i. The World War revealed the fact that about one 
third of the young men were unfit for military service. 

2. During the great war an investigation of health conditions in the 
United States schools resulted in the knowledge that about three 
quarters of the children were handicapped by physical defects. 

3. The medical inspection of schools as well as child welfare de- 
partments and organizations is doing a much needed work in con- 
serving child health. 

4. Every child should be weighed and, if found below normal, should 
be helped to gain weight. 

Questions. — 1. Do you belong to any health club? What are some 
of the advantages? 

2. What is your city doing for the welfare of its boys and girls? 

3. Why should your school send home a health report? 

4. Are you up to the average in weight for your age? If not, why not? 

5. Can you name five good health habits? 



BOOKS FOR THE TEACHER 

Chaptek I. The Healthful Home 

Household Hygiene, Elliott 
Home Sanitation, Richards and Talbot 
Practical Domestic Hygiene, Notter and Firth 
Personal and Domestic Hygiene, Schofield 
Household Hygiene, Bissell 

Healthful Homes, Health-Education League, 113 Devonshire St. 
Boston 

Chapter II. The Dwelling House 

Craftsman Homes, Stickley 

In City Tents, Herrick 

The House Dignified, French 

The Tenement House Problem, De Forest and Veiller 

The Battle with the Slums, Riis 

Distinctive Homes of Moderate Cost, McBride Winston & Co. 

Chapter III. The Rooms of the House 
The Complete Home, Laughlin 
The House, Bevier 
Building a Home, Desmond 
Houses for Town or Country, Herbert 
From Cellar to Attic, Van de Water 

Chapter IV. How to Ventilate the House 

The Science of Living, Sadler 
Ventilation and Heating, Billings 
Practical Hygiene, Harrington 
Open Air Schools, Ayers 

Chapter V. How to Warm the House 

Notes on Heating and Ventilation, Allen 
Warming Buildings by Hot Water, Dye 
The House Warming Manual, Johnston 

3i3 



314 BOOKS FOR THE TEACHER 

Chapter VI. How to Light the House 

Practical Illumination, Cravath and Lansing 

Kerosene Oil and Lamps, Health Department, State of Iowa 

The Production of Natural Gas, U.S. Geological Survey 

18th Annual Report, Oliphant 
Hints to Gas Consumers, Gerhard 
Notes on Gas Lighting and Gas Fitting, Gerhard 
Practical Hot Water Heating, Steam and Gas Fitting, Acetylene 

Gas, Lawler 

Chapter VII. How to Use Running Water in the House 
American Sanitary Plumbing, Lawler 
Sanitation, Water Supply, and Sewage Disposal of Country 

Houses, Gerhard 
How to Drain a House, Waring 
The Disposal of Household Wastes, Gerhard 
The Sanitation of a Country House, Bashore 
Outlines of Practical Sanitation, for Students, Physicians, and 

Sanitarians, Bashore 

Chapter VIII. How to Finish and Decorate a House 

The House Beautiful and Useful, Elder 

Homes and their Decorations, French 

The Decoration of Houses, Wharton and Codman 

Principles of Home Decoration, Wheeler 

Decorators and Decorating, Wheeler 

Hopes and Fears for Art, Morris 

Chapter IX. How to Furnish the House 

The Furnishing of a Modest House, Daniels 
Hints on House Furnishing, Sparrow 
Furniture of Olden Times, Morse 
Historic Styles in Furniture, Robie 
Rugs, Oriental and Occidental, Holt 

Chapter X. How to Care for the House 

The Care of a House, Clark 

Home Economics, Parloa 

Household Economics, Campbell 

The Easiest Way in Housekeeping and Cooking, Campbell 

Household Bacteriology, Elliott 

Cleaning and Renovating at Home, Osman 



BOOKS FOR THE TEACHER 315 

Chapter XI. Some Enemies of the Home 

Alcohol: How it Affects the Individual, the Community, and the 

Race, Smith 
Physiological Aspects of the Liquor Problem, Billings, editor 
The Liquor Problem: A Summary of Investigations conducted 

by the Committee of Fifty 
Publications of the Committee of Fifty 
The Drink Problem, Kelynack, editor 

Chapter XII. The Healthful City 

Municipal Sanitation in the United States, Chapin 

Principles of Sanitary Science and the Public Health, Sedgwick 

Municipal Engineering and Sanitation, Baker 

Civics and Health, Allen 

A Decade of Civic Improvement, Zeubling 

The Improvement of Towns and Cities, Robinson 

Great Cities in America, Wilcox 

Chapter XIII. Parks and Playgrounds 
American Municipal Progress, Zeublin 
The Existing and Proposed Outer Park Systems of America. 

Published by the Allied Organizations, Philadelphia 
Reports of Park Departments of large Cities 
Recreation Centers in Chicago Parks, Pamphlet No. 6, American 

Civic Association, Taylor 
American Playgrounds, Mero 

Chapter XIV. The City Food Supply 

The Food and Drugs Act, Circular No. 21, United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary 

Foods and their Adulterations, Wiley 

Milk and its Relation to the Public Health, Hygienic Laboratory, 
Bulletin No. 41, Public Health and Marine Hospital Service 
of the United States 

Market Milk: A Plan for its Improvement. United States De- 
partment of Agriculture, Reprint, B.A.I. 172-D. D. 31 

The Production and Handling of Clean Milk, Winsloio 

Chapter XV. The City Water and Ice 

Clean Water and How to Get it, Hazen 

The Filtration of Public Water Supplies, Hazen 



316 BOOKS FOR THE TEACHER 

Chapter XV — continued 
Water Supply, Mason 
Drinking Water, Prudden 
Water Supply, Sewerage, and Plumbing of Modern City Buildings, 

Gerhard 
Sanitation, Water Supply, and Sewage Disposal of Country Houses, 

Gerhard 
The Health of the City, Godfrey 

Chapter XVI. The City Refuse 

The Disposal of Municipal Refuse, Parsons 

The Economic Disposal of Town's Refuse, Goodrich 

Disposal of Municipal Waste,Civic Improvement League of St. Louis 

Sewage Disposal, Kinnicutt, Winslow and Pratt 

Works on Sanitary Science 

Chapter XVII. The City Streets 

City Roads and Pavements, Judson 

Road Preservation and Dust Prevention, Judson 

Modern Methods of Street Cleaning, Soper 

Street Cleaning, Waring 

Shade-trees in Towns and Cities, Solotaroff 

Chapter XVIII. Diseases Dangerous to the Public 

Health 

A Manual of Infectious Diseases, Goodall and Washburn 
Infectious Diseases, Ker 

A Practical Treatise on Diseases in Children, Smith 
Publications of the Michigan Board of Health 

Chapter XIX. Tuberculosis 

Tuberculosis; A Preventable and Curable Disease, Knopf 

Tuberculosis; A Curable and Preventable Disease, Flick 

The Crusade against Tuberculosis, Flick 

Consumption, its Relation to Man and his Civilization, its Pre- 
vention and Cure, Huber 

Reports of National and Local Associations for the Prevention and 
Control of Tuberculosis 

Chapter XX. The Prevention of Disease 

Mosquito or Man, Boyce 

Mosquito Brigades and How to Organize them, Ross 



BOOKS FOR THE TEACHER 317 

Chapter XX — continued 

The Prevention of Malaria, Ross 

The Mosquito Nuisance and How to Deal with it, Underwood 

Mosquitoes, Howard 

The House-fly at the Bar, The Merchants Association of New York 

Pollution of New York Harbor as a Menace to Health by the Dis- 
semination of Intestinal Diseases through the Agency of the 
Common House-fly, The Merchants Association of New York 

Chapter XXL The Safe City 

Bucket Brigade to Flying Squadron, Jenness 

Fighting a Fire, Hill 

Fire Fighters and their Pets, Dowries 

Guarding a Great City, McAdoo 

Police Administration, Fuld 

The Risks and Dangers of Various Occupations, Parry 

Chapter XXII. A National Evil 

The Temperance Problem and Social Reform, Rowntree and 

Sherwell 
Prohibition, Homan 

A Century of Drink Reform in the United States, Fehlandt 
The Influence of Alcohol on the National Health, Newsholme 

Chapter XXIII. The Health Campaign 

Health Education Series of pamphlets, Bureau of Education, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 
School Life, published by Bureau of Education, many articles. 
A Nutrition Clinic, W. R. P. Emerson. 
Physical Defects in Children, W. R. P. Emerson. 
Health Work in Public Schools, Ayres, Cleveland Survey. 



INDEX 



Abbott, Lyman, 127 
Abel, Dr. John J., 118 
Accidents, Fourth of July, 135 
Air, fresh, 31, 33, 34, 128 

impure, 31, 34 

in schools, 131 

shaft, 14 
Alcohol and the brain, 120 

and character, 120 

and children, 295 

and efficiency, 120 

and health, 119 

and long life, 123 

and physical strength, 119 

and poverty, 294 

causes disease, 122 
Alcoholic beverages, 118 
Apartment hotels, 12 

houses, 12 

plans of, 22 
Arrests, 278 
Ashes, removal of, 79 
Automobiles, danger from, 138 

Bailey, Henry Turner, 82 
Bangs, John Kendrick, 145 
Basin, settling, 181 
Bath-boiler, 75 
Bathroom, 27, 40 

fittings, 28 
Baths, public, 156 
Bathtub, 28, 74, 78, 79 
Bedroom, 27, 39, 40 

furnishings, 102, 103 
Billboards, 141 

extent and value of, 142 

restricting, 143 

use of, 142 



Boards of Health, city, 276 

state, 277 
Breathing, deep, 32 

shallow, 33 
Burners, 56 
Burning fluids, 58 

Care of furnace, 108 

of gas fixtures, no 

of gas range, no 

of hot water heater, 108 

of house, 107, 108 

of kitchen range, 109 

of kitchen sink, 111 
Carpets, 95 
Ceilings, 88 

cleaning, 113 

decorated, 89 

papered, 89 

plain, 89 
Cellar, 29, 30 
Cereals, 159 
Cheerfulness, 1, 31 
Children, 19, 24, 81 

and tuberculosis, 254 

destitute, 295 

help for, 20 

play for, 153 

play-room for, 28 
Chimneys, 57 

smokeless, 130 
Cholera, 242 
Cigarettes, 124 

Circulation of heated water, 49 
Cities, tenements in, 13 
City, beautiful, 139 

cleanliness in, 128 

food laws, 168 



318 



INDEX 



3i9 



City, food supply, 159 

forester, 227 

healthful, 127 

living in, 7 

noise of, 131 

parks, 147 

plans, 2 1 1-2 14 

protection in, 277 

pure air in, 128 

refuse, 196 

replanning a, 213 

safe, 137, 175 

sanitary, 127 

squares, 146 

streets, 211, 214 

successful, 127 

waste, 200 

water, 177 
Civic beauty, 138 

value of, 140 

work for, 140 
Cleaning, ceilings, 113 

days, 81 

fixtures, in 

floors, 113, 114 

furniture, 114 

hot water front, in 

small areas, 202 

wall-papers, 112 

what to use in, 116, 117 
Cleanliness, neglect of. 17 

of city, 128 

of food, 164 

public, 210 

special, 116 
Closets, 22, 28, 29, 30 

china, 101 
Cold-air box, 45 
Cold storage, 162, 163 
Color, contrasting, 92 

in decoration, 91 

schemes, 92 
Consumption, 230, 24s 

See tuberculosis 
Contagious diseases, 229 

course of illness, 238 



Contagious diseases, how spread, 236 

reporting, 239 

their cause, 229 
Cottages, 12 
Country, living in, 8 
Coverings, floor, 95 

wall, 84 
Crematories, city, 206 
Crime, cause of, 294 
Curtains, 101 

sash, 101 

Dairy industry, 169 

Danger, from automobiles, 138 

from disease, 17 

from dust, 289 

from fire, 18, 280 

from matches, 64 

from overcrowding, 17 

from poisoning, 291 

from poisonous gases, 291 

from stimulants, 118 

in ice, 194 

of cold storage, 163 

of the modern house, 3 
Decoration, color in, 91 

principles of, 91 
Detectives, 280 
Dining-room, 25 

furnishings, 100 
Diphtheria, 232 

antitoxin, 232 
Diseases, children's, 235 

contagious, 17 

danger from, 17 

dangerous, 229 

fighting, 261 

house, 31 

of different seasons, 230 

prevention of, 261 
Disinfecting, 240 
Drain, house, 77, 78 
Drainage system, 76 
Draperies, 101 

cleaning, 114 
Draught, poor, 109 



320 



INDEX 



Drawing-room, 24 
Drink question, 293 
Dust, contents of, 115, 116 

danger from, 289 

prevention of, 290 

proof, 22 

safeguards against, 290 
Dyspepsia, 32 

Electric, bulb, 68 

lighting system, 67 

lights, 67 

meter, 68 

plant, 67 

wiring, 67 
Electricity, regulating, 68 
Enemies of the home, 118 
Epidemics, 18, 273 
Eyes, injurious to, 55 

Faucet, 75 
Filter beds, 200 
Filtering sewage, 199 

water, 180, 184 
Fire, alarm, 283, 284 

apparatus, 282 

boats, 282 

drills, 287 

escapes, 18, 286 

insurance patrol, 283 

men, 281 

place, 38 

prevention of, 288 

proof, 22 

safeguards, 286 
Fires, causes of, 281 

danger from, 18, 280 

fighting, 285 

loss from, 281 

precautions against, 63 

starting, 79 
Fish, 159 
Flies and sick, 270 

and typhoid fever, 270 

campaign against, 272 

exterminating, 270 



Flies, habits of, 269 

house, 269 

rules against, 272 
Floors, 88 

cleaning, 113, 114 

coverings, 95 
Food, 32 

adulterated, 165 

cleanliness and, 164 

fresh, 161 

laws, 168 

misbranded, 165 

prepared, 160 

preservatives in, 164 

produced in U. S., 159 

source of, 159 

supply, 159 
Forester, city, 227 
Fourth of July, 135 

accidents, 135 

new, 137 

safe and sane, 136 
Franklin, Benjamin, 196 
Frozen pipe, thawing, in 
Fruit, 160 
Furnace, 46 

care of, 47, 108 

cleaning, 114 

disadvantages of, 48 

heating with, 45 
Furnishing, bedroom, 102 

dining-room, 100 

general principles of, 94 

hall, 95 

kitchen, 102 

living-room, 96 

useful and beautiful, 94 
Furniture, 97 

cleaning, 114 

for different rooms, 98 

Gannett, Dr., 105 
Garbage, 79, 80 

feeding to swine, 204 

treating, 204 
Gas, acetylene, 66 



INDEX 



321 



Gas, amount used, 64 

burners, 60 

burning, 58 

coal, 59 

escaping, 61 

fields, 58 

fixtures, 60, no, in 

flame, 59 

gasoline, 65 

heating by, 43 

house, 66 

leaking, 63 

mains, 60 

meter, 63-65 

natural, 58 

pipes, 60 

range, no 

sewer, 78 

supply, 59 

water, 65 
Gas-heater, ventilation with, 36 
Gas-log, ventilation with, 37 
Germs, animals as carriers of, 238 

disease, 193, 229 

food as carrier of, 237 

precautions against, 193 

water as carrier of, 237 

Hall, 22 

furnishings, 96 
Health and alcohol, 119 

and intemperance, 298 

and noise, 133 

and waste material, 196 

Boards of, 276, 277 

laws, 6 

of household, 25 

officers, 250 

sunshine and, 31 
Healthful surroundings, 82 
Heat, loss of, 42 
Heating, plant, 43 

with furnace, 45 

with gas, 43 

with hot water, 48 

with oil, 44 



Heating with steam, 53 

with stoves, 45 
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 159, 245 
Home, beautiful, 3 

choosing, 7 

convenient, 2 

danger to, 118 

dangers of modern, 3 

enemies of the, 118 

healthful, 2, 291 

honor of our, 126 

importance of, 4 

responsibility in, 4 

sanitary, 2 

suburban, 9 

use of, 5 

well-regulated, 4 
Hospitality, 22 
Hot-air pipes, 47 
Hotel, apartment, 12 
Hot -water heater, 50 

care of, 51, 108 
Hot-water heating, 52 

advantages of, 52 

disadvantages of, 52 
House, apartment, 12 

beautiful, 105 

clean, 115 

country, 11 

decorating the, 82 

diseases, 31 

drain, 77, 78 

dwelling, 7 

finishing the, 82, 94 

how to care for, 107 

in olden times, 21, 107 

lighting a, 55 

location of, 10 

modern, 22 

motto, 1, 7, 21, 31, 55 

of Babel, 14 

plan of the, 22 

running water in, 70 

single, 11 

tenement, 13 

twentieth century, 22 



322 



INDEX 



Houses, variety in, 10 

ventilating a, 33 

warming, 42 

wastes of, 76 
Housekeeping, municipal, 6 

Ice, 26 

amount used, 190 

cutting, 192 

distributing, 192 

harvesting, 191 

need of, 190 

purity of, 193 

source of, 191 

storing, 192 

tanks, 194 
Incubation periods, 239 
Influenza, 233 
Insanity, 293 
Intemperance, 298 

Juvenile Street Cleaning Leagues, 223 



Light, acetylene, 66 

artificial, 56 

electric, 67 

good, no 

incandescant, 61 

natural, 55 
Liquor, and crime, 294 

and insanity, 293 

traffic, 293 
Living, in city, 7 

in country, 8 

in suburbs, 9 

out-of-doors, 39 

right, 1 

together, 5 
Living-room, 23 

air in, 33 

furnishings of, 96 
Local option, 296 
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 5 
Lowell, James Russell, 70, 177 
Lungs, 32, 33 



Kerosene, 56 
Kitchen, 25 

care of, 109 

colonial, 21 

furnishing, 102 

range, 74, 91 
Kitchenette, 26 

Label, 167 
Lamps, 56 

cleaning, 57 

safety, 58 
Land, made, 203 
Laundry, 30 
Laws, against spitting, 248 

food, 166-168 

milk, 172 
Leak, in gas-pipe, 63 

in water-pipe, in 
Library, 24 
License system, 297 
Life insurance companies, 122 
Life in tenement house, 14-16 



Malaria, and the mosquito, 261 

suppressing, 265 
Matches, 64 
Measles, 235 
Meat, inspection, 174 

inspectors, 175 

stamp, 175 
Meningitis, 235 
Meter, electric, 68 

gas, 63-65 

water, 75 
Milk, adulterated, 170 

amount used, 168 

clean, 170 

commissioners, 173 

grades of, 171 

inspection of, 172 

laws, 172 

pure, 172 

stations, 173 

supply of New York, 170 

use of, 169 
Mosquitoes, and fish, 264 



INDEX 



323 



Mosquitoes and yellow fever, 267 

avoiding, 264 

destroying, 263 

in Havana, 268 

in Panama, 265 

in United States, 266 

laws against, 264 

malaria, 262 

remedies for, 268 
Motto, house, 1 

old English, 7, 21, 31, 55, 107 

tuberculosis, 259 
Music-room, 24 

Neighborhood, a good, 9 
Newsholme, Dr. Arthur, 293 
New York, charities, 20 

Croton water of, 187, 188 

dark rooms, 19 

milk supply of, 170 

noise in, 134 
Noise, city, 31 

effect on health, 133 

how to reduce, 133 

on Fourth of July, 135 

preventing, 133 

street, 132 

suppressing, 134 
Nuisance, smoke, 129 
Nuts, 160 

Occupations, dangerous, 288 

hygienic, 289 

unheal thful, 288 
Oil heater, 36, 43, 44 
Oiling ponds, 263 
Orange grove, 161 
Overcrowding, dangers in, 17 

in New York, 16 

Painted walls, 85 

Palmer, Mrs. Alice Freeman, 1 

Panels of wood, 85 

Pantry, 25, 26 

Park system of Chicago, 150 

Parks and playgrounds, 145 



Parks and playgrounds of Boston, 
148 

city, 147 

county, 151 

kinds of, 146 

large, 149 

Mulberry Bend, 18 

necessity for, 145 

Philadelphia, 148 

Seward, 18 

value of, 145 
Parlor, 24 
Pavements, asphalt, 218 

brick, 218 

broken stone, 218 

stone block, 217 

wood, 217 
Piazza, 22, 39 
Pictures, 98 . N 

family, 100 

for the home, 99 

framing, 99 

hanging, 99 

new, 114 
Piers, recreation, 157 
Pipes, cold water, 73, 75 

frozen, in 

gas, 60 

hot-water, 74, 75 

running water through, 77 

soil, 76 

waste, 76 
Plan of Buffalo, 213 

of Chicago, 213 

of Philadelphia, 211 

of Washington, 212 
Playgrounds, city, 152 

equipment of, 155 

established by law, 156 

in school-yards, 154 

need of, 151 

notable, 155 

on roofs, 154 
Play-room, 28 
Pneumonia, 231 
Poisoning, danger from, 291 



324 

Poisoning, -preventing, 291 
Police, 278 

duties of, 279 

signal system, 280 

traffic, 280 
Poverty and alcohol, 294 
Preservatives in food, 164 
Prohibition, 296 
Public baths, 156 
Public Health Service, 275 
Pump in well, 70 
Pure Food and Drugs Act, 165 

enforcement of, 166 

laboratories, 168 

limitations of, 166 

the law, 166 

Quarantine, 239 
of persons, 241 
of ships, 241 
stations, 241 

Radiators, air in, 38 
Recreation piers, 157 
Reforms, 19 

temperance, 295 
Refuse, 80 
Residence, 10, 24 
Return-pipes, 50 
Riley, James Whit comb, 31 
Rivers as water-supplies, 179 
Room, bath, 27 

bed, 27 

boy's, 104 

dining, 25 

drawing, 24 

furniture for, 98 

girl's, 104 

living, 23 

music, 24 

play, 28 

reception, 23, 24 

sitting, 24 

store, 30 

well- lighted, 55 

woodwork of a, 83 



INDEX 



Rubbish, 80 
Rugs, 96 

variety of, 96 

Safe, and sane Fourth, 136 

city, 137 
Saloon, evils of, 297 
Scarlet fever, 234 
School attendance, 240 
Schools, fresh air in, 131 
Sewage disposal, 197 

filtering, 199 
Sewerage system of Boston, 198 
Sewer-gas, 78 
Sewers, 197 

ocean as outlet for, 198 

rivers as outlet for, 197 
Shades, window, 91 
Shade-trees, 225 

care of, 226 

characteristics of, 225 

kinds of, 226 
Shafts, air, 14 

ventilating, 38 
Shut-off, 73 
Sinks, 74, 79 

care of, 112 
Sicting-room, 24 
Sleeping, out-of-doors, 39 

porch, 39 
Smoke, damage done by. 129 

nuisance, 129 

pipe, 47 

reducing the, 130 
Smokeless chimneys, 13c 
Smoking, 123 

and young men, 124 

public, 123 
Snow, dumping, 209 

on streets, 208 
Society for the Suppression of Unneces- 
sary Noise, 134 
Soil-pipe, 76 
Sound-proof, 22 , 
Spaces of walls, 84 
Spitting, laws against, 248 



INDEX 



3*5 



Squares, city, 146 
Stamp, meat inspector's, 175 
State food laws, 16S 
Stations, milk, 173 
Steam, heating, 53, 54 

pipes, 53 
Storage, cold, 162, 163 

tank, 73 
Store-room, 30 
Stoves, disadvantages of, 44 

heating by, 44 
Street, lamps, 224 

lighting, 224 

sweepings, 201 
Streets, city, 211, 214 

clean, 221, 222 

dusty, 219 

gravel, 217 

how cleaned, 221 

kinds of, 216 

names of, 214 

oiling, 220 

safe, 138 

snow on, 208 

sprinkling, 220 

tar products on, 220 

use of, 227 

width of, 215 
Strength and alcohol, 119 
Suburbs, living in, 9 
Sunshine, 31 
Supply-pipes, 50 

Tank, 51 

Temperance, reforms, 295 

societies, 296 
Temperature of a room, 33, 34 
Tenement, house, 13 

inspected, 19 

life in, 14-16 
Tenements, in Boston, 13, 18 

in New York, 13, 18 

reforms in, 18 
Traffic regulations, 237 
Transportation, 162 
Traps, water, 78 



Tub, bath, 28, 74, 78, 79 

laundry, 74, 78, 79 
Tuberculosis, cause of, 245 

classes, 258 

curable, 250 

day-camps, 256 

different forms, 245 

exhibits, 259 

hospitals, 253, 256 

in children, 254 

mottoes, 259 

night-camps, 257 

not inherited, 250 

prevented, 249 

societies, 258 

spreading, 247, 248 

symptoms, 247 

treatment, 251-253 

what it does, 246 
Typhoid fever, 232 

and Cuban War, 270 

preventing, 271 

spreading, 270 

Van Dyke, Henry, 8, 42 
Vegetables, 160 
Ventilating, shafts, 38 

the house, 33 
Ventilation, and hot-air heating, 37 

in public places, 130 

in summer, 36 

inlets for, 34, 36 

outlets for, 34-36 

principles of, 34 

systems of house, 38 

with gas-heater, 36 

with gas-log, 37 

with oil-heater, 36 

with radiators, 38 

with stoves, 37 

Wall-papers, 86, 88 

cleaning, 112 

for different rooms, 88 

to avoid, 87 
Walls, 84 



326 



INDEX 



Walls, calcimined, 85 

coverings of, 84 

painted, 85 

spaces of, 84 

with panels, 85 
Warmth, ideal, 42 
Washbasin, 78 
Waste, barrels, 222 

burning, 205, 207 

collecting, 200 

disposal of, 202 

dumping, 203 

health and, 196 

kinds of, 196 

material, 200 

of a house, 76 

pipes, 76, 78 

plowing into soil, 204 
Water, amount needed, 178 

city, 177 

drinking, 70, 71 

filtering, 180, 184 

filters, 182 

from lakes, 186 

meter, 75 

of Boston, 189 



Water of Brooklyn, 186 

of Los Angeles, 188 

of New York, 187 

pipes, 72, 73, in 

protection of, 189 

pure, 127, 183 

purified, 178 

rain, 70 

running, 70-72 

service, 284 

spring, 186 

sterilizing, 184 

supply, 177 

traps, 78 
Wells, 70, 185 
Whooping-cough, 235 
Wicks, 57 
Window, 90 

shades, 91 

tent, 40 
Wiring, electric, 67 

finishing, 83 
Woodwork, of a room, 83 

Yellow fever, 268 



